Skip to main content

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Literatur

  • Abelson JL, Curtis GC (1996) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in panic disorder — 24-hour secretion of corticotropin and cortisol. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53: 323–331

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abelson JL, Nesse RM (1994) Pentagastrin infusions in patients with panic disorder. I. Symptoms and cardiovascular responses. Biol Psychiatry 36: 73–83

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abelson JL, Glitz D, Cameron OG, Lee MA, Bronzo M, Curtis GC (1991) Blunted growth hormone response to clonidine in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 157–162

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abelson JL, Glitz D, Cameron OG, Lee MA, Bronzo M, Curtis GC (1992) Endocrine, cardiovascular, and behavioral responses to clonidine in patients with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 32: 18–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adams JB, Pyke RE, Costa J et al (1995) A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of a CCK-B receptor antagonist, CI-988, in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 15: 428–434

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albus M, Zahn TP, Breier A (1992) Anxiogenic properties of yohimbine. I. Behavioral, physiological and biochemical measures. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 241: 337–344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aloisi AM, Bianchi M, Lupo C, Sacerdote P, Farabollini F (1999) Neuroendocrine and behavioral effects of CRH blockade and stress in male rats. Physiol Behav 66: 523–528

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alpers GW, Abelson JL, Wilhelm FH, Roth WT (2003) Salivary cortisol response during exposure treatment in driving phobics. Psychosom Med 65: 679–687

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amaral DG (2002) The primate amygdala and the neurobiology of social behavior: implications for understanding social anxiety. Biol Psychiatry 51: 11–17

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews G, Stewart G, Allen R, Henderson AS (1990) The genetics of six neurotic disorders: a twin study. J Affect Disord 19: 23–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Appleby I, Klein D, Sachar E, Levitt M (1981) Biochemical indices of lactate-induced panic: a preliminary report. Raven Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Argyropoulos SV, Bailey JE, Hood SD et al (2002) Inhalation of 35% CO(2) results in activation of the HPA axis in healthy volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27: 715–729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnsten AF (1998) The biology of being frazzled. Science 280: 1711–1712

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton H (1994) Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines. When and what to use. Drugs 48: 25–40

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aston-Jones G, Akaoka H, Charlety P, Chouvet G (1991) Serotonin selectively attenuates glutamate-evoked activation of noradrenergic locus coeruleus neurons. J Neurosci 11: 760–769

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avery DH, Osgood TB, Ishiki DM, Wilson LG, Kenny M, Dunner DL (1985) The DST in psychiatric outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, or primary affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 142: 844–848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ball S, Shekhar A (1997) Basilar artery response to hyperventilation in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 154: 1603–1604

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B (2001) Panik und Agoraphobie — Ursachen, Diagnose und Behandlung. Springer, Wien

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B (2003) Angst-und Panikerkrankungen. UNI-MED, Bremen

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B, Sengos G, Wedekind D et al (1997) Urinary excretion of cortisol, norepinephrine, testosterone, and melatonin in panic disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry 30: 113–117 (published erratum p 278)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B, Wedekind D, Pauls J, Broocks A, Hajak G, Rüther E (2000a) Salivary cortisol in panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 157: 454–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B, Wedekind D, Sandvoss V et al (2000b) Diurnal variation of cortisol in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 95: 245–250

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B, Späth C, Álvarez Tichauer G, Broocks A, Hajak G, Rüther E (2002a) Early traumatic life events, parental attitudes, family history, and birth risk factors in patients with panic disorder. Compr Psychiatry 43: 269–278

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow B, Zohar J, Hollander E, Kasper S, Möller HJ (2002b) World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and posttraumatic stress disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry 3: 171–199

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandelow, Charimo Torrente A, Broocks A, Hajak G, Rüther E (2004) Early traumatic life events, parental rearing styles, family history of mental disorders, and birth risk factors in patients with social anxiety disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 254(6): 397–405

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayle FJ, Millet B, Andre C (1999) Biologie des phobies sociales. L’encéphale 25: 345–352

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell C, Forshall S, Adrover M et al (2002) Does 5-HT restrain panic? A tryptophan depletion study in panic disorder patients recovered on paroxetine. J Psychopharmacol 16: 5–14

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bellodi L, Perna G, Caldirola D, Arancio C, Bertani A, Di Bella D (1998) CO2-induced panic attacks: a twin study. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1184–1188

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin J, Levine J, Fux M, Aviv A, Levy D, Belmaker RH (1995) Doubleblind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial of inositol treatment for panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 152: 1084–1086

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benkelfat C, Bradwejn J, Meyer E, Ellenbogen M, Milot S, Gjedde A, Evans A (1995) Functional neuroanatomy of CCK4-induced anxiety in normal healthy volunteers. Am J Psychiatry 152: 1180–1184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benshop RJ, Jacobs R, Sommer B, Schürmeyer TH, Schmidt RE, Schedlowski M (1996) Propranolol and alprazolam differentially affect immunological changes induced by acute emotional stress. FASEB J 10: 517–524

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya SK, Chakrabarti A, Sandler M, Glover V (1996) Anxiolytic activity of intraventricularly administered atrial natriuretic peptide in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 15: 199–206

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birbaumer N, Grodd W, Diedrich O et al (1998) fMRI reveals amygdala activation to human faces in social phobics. Neuroreport 9: 1223–1226

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bisaga A, Katz JL, Antonini A, Wright CE, Margouleff C, Gorman JM, Eidelberg D (1998) Cerebral glucose metabolism in women with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1178–1183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boshuisen ML, Ter Horst GJ, Paans AM, Reinders AA, den Boer JA (2002) rCBF differences between panic disorder patients and control subjects during anticipatory anxiety and rest. Biol Psychiatry 52: 126–135

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boulenger J, Patel J, Marangos P (1982) Effects of caffeine and theophylline on adenosine and benzodiazepine receptors in human brain. Neurosci Lett 30: 161–166

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boulenger JP, Uhde TW, Wolff EA, Post RM (1984) Increased sensitivity to caffeine in patients with panic disorders. Preliminary evidence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41: 1067–1071

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boulenger JP, Jerabek I, Jolicoeur FB, Lavallee YJ, Leduc R, Cadieux A (1996) Elevated plasma levels of neuropeptide Y in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 153: 114–116

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradwejn J, de Montigny C (1984) Benzodiazepines antagonize cholecystokinin-induced activation of rat hippocampal neurones. Nature 312: 363–364

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D (1994) Imipramine antagonism of the panicogenic effects of cholecystokinin tetrapeptide in panic disorder patients. Am J Psychiatry 151: 261–263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, Shriqui C (1991) Enhanced sensitivity to cholecystokinin tetrapeptide in panic disorder. Clinical and behavioral findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 603–610

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, Couetoux du Tertre A, van Megen H, den Boer J, Westenberg H (1994) The panicogenic effects of cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide are antagonized by L-365,260, a central cholecystokinin receptor antagonist, in patients with panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51: 486–493

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, Paradis M, Reece P, Hinton J, Sedman A (1995) Effect of CI-988 on cholecystokinin tetrapeptide-induced panic symptoms in healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 38: 742–746

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brady LS, Gold PW, Herkenham M, Lynn AB, Whitfield HJ Jr. (1992) The antidepressants fluoxetine, idazoxan and phenelzine alter corticotropin-releasing hormone and tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA levels in rat brain: therapeutic implications. Brain Res 572: 117–125

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brambilla F, Maggioni M (1998) Blood levels of cytokines in elderly patients with major depressive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 97: 309–313

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brambilla F, Bellodi L, Perna G et al (1992) Psychoimmunoendocrine aspects of panic disorder. Neuropsychobiology 26: 12–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brambilla F, Bellodi L, Perna G, Garberi A, Panerai A, Sacerdote P (1993) Lymphocyte cholecystokinin concentrations in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 150: 1111–1113

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brambilla P, Barale F, Caverzasi E, Soares JC (2002) Anatomical MRI findings in mood and anxiety disorders. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 11: 88–99

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt CA, Meller J, Keweloh L, Hoschel K, Staedt J, Munz D, Stoppe G (1998) Increased benzodiazepine receptor density in the prefrontal cortex in patients with panic disorder. J Neural Transm 105: 1325–1333

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braune S, Albus M, Frohler M, Hohn T, Scheibe G (1994) Psychophysiological and biochemical changes in patients with panic attacks in a defined situational arousal. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 244: 86–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brawman-Mintzer O, Lydiard RB (1997) Biological basis of generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 58: 16–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breier A, Charney DS, Heninger GR (1986) Agoraphobia with panic attacks. Development, diagnostic stability, and course of illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43: 1029–1036

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner JD, Krystal JH, Southwick SM, Charney DS (1996a) Noradrenergic mechanisms in stress and anxiety: I. Preclinical studies. Synapse 23: 28–38

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner JD, Krystal JH, Southwick SM, Charney DS (1996b) Noradrenergic mechanisms in stress and anxiety: II. Clinical studies. Synapse 23: 39–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britton KT, Akwa Y, Spina MG, Koob GF (2000) Neuropeptide Y blocks anxiogenic-like behavioral action of corticotropin-releasing factor in an operant conflict test and elevated plus maze. Peptides 21: 37–44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broocks A, Bandelow B, George A et al (2000) Increased psychological responses and divergent neuroendocrine responses to m-CPP and ipsapirone in patients with panic disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 15: 153–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buchsbaum MS, Wu JC, DeLisi LE, Holcomb HH, Hazlett E, Cooper-Langston K, Kessler R (1987) Positron emission tomography studies of basal ganglia and somatosensory cortex neuroleptic drug effects: differences between normal controls and schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 22: 479–494

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butler J, O’Halloran A, Leonard BE (1992) The Galway Study of Panic Disorder. II: Changes in some peripheral markers of noradrenergic and serotonergic function in DSM III-R panic disorder. J Affect Disord 26: 89–99

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caldirola D, Perna G, Arancio C, Bertani A, Bellodi L (1997) The 35% CO2 challenge test in patients with social phobia. Psychiatry Res 71: 41–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron OG, Nesse RM (1988) Systemic hormonal and physiological abnormalities in anxiety disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 13: 287–307

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron OG, Smith CB, Lee MA, Hollingsworth PJ, Hill EM, Curtis GC (1990) Adrenergic status in anxiety disorders: platelet alpha2-adrenergic receptor binding, blood pressure, pulse, and plasma catecholamines in panic and generalized anxiety disorder patients and in normal subjects. Biol Psychiatry 28: 3–20

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carr DB, Sheehan DV, Surman OS et al (1986) Neuroendocrine correlates of lactate-induced anxiety and their response to chronic alprazolam therapy. Am J Psychiatry 143: 483–494

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter MM, Hollon SD, Carson R, Shelton RC (1995) Effects of a safe person on induced distress following a biological challenge in panic disorder with agoraphobia. J Abnorm Psychol 104: 156–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallini MC, Perna G, Caldirola D, Bellodi L (1999) A segregation study of panic disorder in families of panic patients responsive to the 35% CO2 challenge. Biol Psychiatry 46: 815–820

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney D, Bremner D (1999) The neurobiology of anxiety disorders. In: Charney D (ed). Neurobiology of mental illness. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 494–517

    Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Deutch A (1996) A functional neuroanatomy of anxiety and fear: implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Crit Rev Neurobiol 10: 419–446

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Heninger GR (1985) Noradrenergic function and the mechanism of action of antianxiety treatment. I. The effect of longterm alprazolam treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42: 458–467

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Heninger GR (1986) Abnormal regulation of noradrenergic function in panic disorders. Effects of clonidine in healthy subjects and patients with agoraphobia and panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43: 1042–1054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Heninger GR, Breier A (1984) Noradrenergic function in panic anxiety. Effects of yohimbine in healthy subjects and patients with agoraphobia and panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41: 751–763

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Heninger GR, Jatlow PI (1985) Increased anxiogenic effects of caffeine in panic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42: 233–243

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Woods SW, Goodman WK et al (1986) Drug treatment of panic disorder: the comparative efficacy of imipramine, alprazolam, and trazodone. J Clin Psychiatry 47: 580–586

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Woods SW, Goodman WK, Heninger GR (1987a) Neurobiological mechanisms of panic anxiety: biochemical and behavioral correlates of yohimbine-induced panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 144: 1030–1036

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Woods SW, Goodman WK, Heninger GR (1987b) Serotonin function in anxiety. II. Effects of the serotonin agonist MCPP in panic disorder patients and healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology 92: 14–24

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Woods SW, Heninger GR (1989) Noradrenergic function in generalized anxiety disorder: effects of yohimbine in healthy subjects and patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Res 27: 173–182

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charney DS, Woods SW, Krystal JH, Nagy LM, Heninger GR (1992) Noradrenergic neuronal dysregulation in panic disorder: the effects of intravenous yohimbine and clonidine in panic disorder patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 86: 273–282

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee S, Sunitha TA, Velayudhan A, Khanna S (1997) An investigation into the psychobiology of social phobia: personality domains and serotonergic function. Acta Psychiatr Scand 95: 544–550

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Condren RM, O’Neill A, Ryan MC, Barrett P, Thakore JH (2002) HPA axis response to a psychological stressor in generalised social phobia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27: 693–703

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Lydiard RB (1998) Brain circuits in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 44: 1264–1276

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Liebowitz MR, Gorman JM et al (1992a) Noradrenergic function in panic disorder. Effects of intravenous clonidine pretreatment on lactate induced panic. Biol Psychiatry 31: 135–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Sharma T, Rosenblum LA, Friedman S, Bassoff TB, Barbour RL, Gorman JM (1992b) Effects of sodium lactate infusion on cisternal lactate and carbon dioxide levels in nonhuman primates. Am J Psychiatry 149: 1369–1373

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Pine D, Papp LA, Martinez J, Klein DF, Gorman JM (1994) CO2-induced panic and lack of cortisol response. In: American Psychiatric Association (ed) New Research Abstracts. American Psychiatric Association, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Papp LA, Martinez J et al (1995a) Persistence of blunted human growth hormone response to clonidine in fluoxetine-treated patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 152: 619–622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Pine D, Papp L, Martinez J, Cooper T, Rosenblum LA, Gorman JM (1995b) Uncoupling of the noradrenergic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in panic disorder patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 13: 65–73

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coplan JD, Papp LA, Pine D et al (1997) Clinical improvement with fluoxetine therapy and noradrenergic function in patients with panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 643–648

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelius RR, Averill JR (1983) Sex differences in fear of spiders. J Pers Soc Psychol 45: 377–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coryell W, Noyes R, Schlechte J (1989) The significance of HPA axis disturbance in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 25: 989–1002

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coupland NJ (2001) Social phobia: etiology, neurobiology, and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 25–35

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coupland NY, Bailey JE, Potokar JP (1995) Abnormal cardioascular responses to standing in panic disorder and social phobia. J Psychopharmacol 9: A73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowley DS, Dager SR, McClellan J, Roy-Byrne PP, Dunner DL (1988) Response to lactate infusion in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 24: 409–414

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cowley DS, Dager SR, Roy Byrne PP, Avery DH, Dunner DL (1991) Lactate vulnerability after alprazolam versus placebo treatment of panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 30: 49–56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis G, Buxton M, Lippman D, Nesse R, Wright J (1976) »Flooding in vivo« during the circadian phase of minimal cortisol secretion: anxiety and therapeutic success without adrenal cortical activation. Biol Psychiatry 11: 101–107

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis AL, Lechner SM, Pavcovich LA, Valentino RJ (1997) Activation of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system by intracoerulear microinfusion of corticotropin-releasing factor: effects on discharge rate, cortical norepinephrine levels and cortical electroencephalographic activity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 281: 163–172

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daenen EW, Wolterink G, Gerrits MA, Van Ree JM (2002) Amygdala or ventral hippocampal lesions at two early stages of life differentially affect open field behaviour later in life; an animal model of neurodevelopmental psychopathological disorders. Behav Brain Res 131: 67–78

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dager SR, Swann AC (1996) Advances in brain metabolism research: toward a moving picture of neural activity. Biol Psychiatry 39: 231–233

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dager SR, Rainey JM, Kenny MA, Artru AA, Metzger GD, Bowden DM (1990) Central nervous system effects of lactate infusion in primates. Biol Psychiatry 27: 193–204

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dager SR, Friedman SD, Heide A et al (1999) Two-dimensional proton echo-planar spectroscopic imaging of brain metabolic changes during lactate-induced panic. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56: 70–77

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dajas F, Nin A, Barbeito L (1986) Urinary norepinephrine excretion in panic and phobic disorders. J Neural Transm 65: 75–81

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels D, Plomin R (1985) Origins of individual differences in infant shyness. Devel Psychol 21: 118–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dantendorfer K, Prayer D, Kramer J et al (1996) High frequency of EEG and MRI brain abnormalities in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 68: 41–53

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dantzer R (2001) Cytokine-induced sickness behavior: mechanisms and implications. Ann NY Acad Sci 933: 222–234

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dautzenberg FM, Hauger RL (2002) The CRF peptide family and their receptors: yet more partners discovered. Trends Pharmacol Sci 23: 71–77

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson JR, Krishnan KR, Charles HC, Boyko O, Potts NL, Ford SM, Patterson L (1993) Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in social phobia: preliminary findings. J Clin Psychiatry 54: 19–25

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson RJ, Marshall JR, Tomarken AJ, Henriques JB (2000) While a phobic waits: regional brain electrical and autonomic activity in social phobics during anticipation of public speaking. Biol Psychiatry 47: 85–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis M (1997) Neurobiology of fear responses: the role of the amygdala. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci 9: 382–402

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis MD, Keshavan MS, Shifflett H et al (2002) Superiortemporal gyrus volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 51: 553–562

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Cristofaro MT, Sessarego A, Pupi A, Biondi F, Faravelli C (1993) Brain perfusion abnormalities in drug-naive, lactate-sensitive panic patients: a SPECT study. Biol Psychiatry 33: 505–512

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Oca BM, DeCola JP, Maren S, Fanselow MS (1998) Distinct regions of the periaqueductal gray are involved in the acquisition and expression of defensive responses. J Neurosci 18: 3426–3432

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deakin JWF, Graeff FG (1991) 5-HT and mechanisms of defence. J Psychopharmacol 5: 305–315

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deckert J, Catalano M, Heils A et al (1997) Functional promoter polymorphism of the human serotonin transporter: lack of association with panic disorder. Psychiatr Genet 7: 45–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deckert J, Nothen MM, Franke P et al (1998) Systematic mutation screening and association study of the A1 and A2a adenosine receptor genes in panic disorder suggest a contribution of the A2a gene to the development of disease. Mol Psychiatry 3: 81–85

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deckert J, Catalano M, Syagailo YV et al (1999) Excess of high activity monoamine oxidase A gene promoter alleles in female patients with panic disorder. Hum Mol Genet 8: 621–624

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • den Boer JA, Westenberg HG (1988) Effect of a serotonin and noradrenaline uptake inhibitor in panic disorder; a double-blind comparative study with fluvoxamine and maprotiline. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 3: 59–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • den Boer JA, Westenberg HG (1990) Serotonin function in panic disorder: a double blind placebo controlled study with fluvoxamine and ritanserin. Psychopharmacology 102: 85–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deutch AY, Young CD (1995) A model of the stress-induced activation of prefrontal cortical dopamine systems: coping and the development of prost-traumatic stress disorder. In: Friedman MJ, Charney DS, Deutch AY (eds) Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 163–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Devinsky O, Sato S, Theodore WH, Porter RJ (1989) Fear episodes due to limbic seizures with normal ictal scalp EEG: a subdural electrographic study. J Clin Psychiatry 50: 28–30

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiNardo PA, Guzy LT, Jenkins JA, Bak RM, Tomasi SF, Copland M (1988) Etiology and maintenance of dog fears. Behav Res Ther 26: 241–244

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dodd J, Kelly JS (1979) Excitation of CA1 pyramidal neurones of the hippocampus by the tetra-and octapeptide C-terminal fragments of cholecystokinin. J Physiol 295: 61P–62P

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dorow R, Horowski R, Paschelke G, Amin M (1983) Severe anxiety induced by FG 7142, a beta-carboline ligand for benzodiazepine receptors. Lancet 2: 98–99

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eren I, Tukel R, Polat A, Karaman R, Unal S (2003) Evaluation of regional cerebral blood flow changes in panic disorder with Tc99m-HMPAO SPECT. Psychiatry Res 123: 135–143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson E, Westberg P, Alling C, Thuresson K, Modigh K (1991) Cerebrospinal fluid levels of monoamine metabolites in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 36: 243–251

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrarese C, Appollonio I, Frigo M, Perego M, Piolti R, Trabucchi M, Frattola L (1990) Decreased density of benzodiazepine receptors in lymphocytes of anxious patients: reversal after chronic diazepam treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand 82: 169–173

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finn CT, Smoller JW (2001) The genetics of panic disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 3: 13–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fish DR, Gloor P, Quesney FL, Olivier A (1993) Clinical responses to electrical brain stimulation of the temporal and frontal lobes in patients with epilepsy. Pathophysiological implications. Brain 116: 397–414

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fontaine R, Breton G, Dery R, Fontaine S, Elie R (1990) Temporal lobe abnormalities in panic disorder: an MRI study. Biol Psychiatry 27: 304–310

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fossey MD, Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC, Laraia MT, Bissette G, Nemeroff CB (1996) Cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in patients with anxiety disorders and normal comparison subjects. Biol Psychiatry 39: 703–707

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrikson M, Furmark T (2004) Brain imaging studies in social anxiety disorder. In: Bandelow B, Stein DJ (eds). Social anxiety disorder. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrikson M, Wik G, Fischer H, Andersson J (1995) Affective and attentive neural networks in humans: a PET study of Pavlovian conditioning. Neuroreport 7: 97–101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrikson M, Annas P, Fischer H, Wik G (1996) Gender and age differences in the prevalence of specific fears and phobias. Behav Res Ther 34: 33–39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furmark T, Fischer H, Wik G, Larsson M, Fredrikson M (1997) The amygdala and individual differences in human fear conditioning. Neuroreport 8: 3957–3960

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furmark T, Tillfors M, Marteinsdottir I, Fischer H, Pissiota A, Langstrom B, Fredrikson M (2002) Common changes in cerebral blood flow in patients with social phobia treated with citalopram or cognitivebehavioral therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 425–433

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fyer AJ, Mannuzza S, Gallops MS et al (1990) Familial transmission of simple phobias and fears. A preliminary report. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47: 252–256

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fyer AJ, Mannuzza S, Chapman TF, Liebowitz MR, Klein DF (1993) A direct interview family study of social phobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50: 286–293

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fyer AJ, Mannuzza S, Chapman TF, Martin LY, Klein DF (1995) Specificity in familial aggregation of phobic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 564–573

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garvey MJ, Crowe RR, Wang Z (1998) An association of NAG levels and a mutation of the CCK gene in panic disorder patients. Psychiatry Res 80: 149–153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter J, Page GP, Bonvicini K, Woods SW, Pauls DL, Kruger S (2003) A chromosome 14 risk locus for simple phobia: results from a genomewide linkage scan. Mol Psychiatry 8: 71–82

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George DT, Lindquist T, Nutt DJ et al (1995) Effect of chloride or glucose on the incidence of lactate-induced panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 152: 692–697

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geraci M, Anderson TS, Slate-Cothren S, Post RM, McCann UD (2002) Pentagastrin-induced sleep panic attacks: panic in the absence of elevated baseline arousal. Biol Psychiatry 52: 1183–1189

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Germine M, Goddard AW, Woods SW, Charney DS, Heninger GR (1992) Anger and anxiety responses to m-chlorophenylpiperazine in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 32: 457–461

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Zambelli U, Timpano M, Reali N, Bernasconi S, Brambilla F (2000) Neuroendocrine responses to psychological stress in adolescents with anxiety disorder. Neuropsychobiology 42: 82–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gloor P, Olivier A, Quesney LF, Andermann F, Horowitz S (1982) The role of the limbic system in experiential phenomena of temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol 12: 129–144

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard AW, Woods SW, Sholomskas DE, Goodman WK, Charney DS, Heninger GR (1993) Effects of the serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluvoxamine on yohimbine-induced anxiety in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 48: 119–133

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard AW, Sholomskas DE, Walton KE et al (1994) Effects of tryptophan depletion in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 36: 775–777

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard AW, Woods SW, Money R et al (1999) Effects of the CCK(B) antagonist CI-988 on responses to mCPP in generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Res 85: 225–240

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard AW, Brouette T, Almai A, Jetty P, Woods SW, Charney D (2001a) Early coadministration of clonazepam with sertraline for panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: 681–686

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard AW, Mason GF, Almai A et al (2001b) Reductions in occipital cortex GABA levels in panic disorder detected with 1h-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: 556–561

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein S, Halbreich U, Asnis G, Endicott J, Alvir J (1987) The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 144: 1320–1323

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman JM, Uy J (1987) Respiratory physiology and pathological anxiety. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 9: 410–419

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman JM, Askanazi J, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Stein J, Kinney JM, Klein DF (1984) Response to hyperventilation in a group of patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 141: 857–861

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman JM, Fyer MR, Goetz R et al (1988) Ventilatory physiology of patients with panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45: 31–39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman JM, Battista D, Goetz RR et al (1989) A comparison of sodium bicarbonate and sodium lactate infusion in the induction of panic attacks. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46: 145–150

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman JM, Papp LA, Coplan JD et al (1994) Anxiogenic effects of CO2 and hyperventilation in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 151: 547–553

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman JM, Kent JM, Sullivan GM, Coplan JD (2000) Neuroanatomical hypothesis of panic disorder, revised. Am J Psychiatry 157: 493–505

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gratacos M, Nadal M, Martin-Santos R et al (2001) A polymorphic genomic duplication on human chromosome 15 is a susceptibility factor for panic and phobic disorders. Cell 106: 367–379

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griebel G, Perrault G, Sanger DJ (1998) Characterization of the behavioral profile of the non-peptide CRF receptor antagonist CP-154,526 in anxiety models in rodents. Comparison with diazepam and buspirone. Psychopharmacology 138: 55–66

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griez E, de Loof C, Pols H, Zandbergen J, Lousberg H (1990) Specific sensitivity of patients with panic attacks to carbon dioxide inhalation. Psychiatry Res 31: 193–199

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin LD, Mellon SH (1999) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors directly alter activity of neurosteroidogenic enzymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 13512–135217.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grodd W, Schneider F, Klose U, Nagele T (1995) Functional magnetic resonance tomography of psychological functions exemplified by experimentally induced emotions. Radiologe 35: 283–289

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gross C, Zhuang X, Stark K et al (2002) Serotonin1A receptor acts during development to establish normal anxiety-like behaviour in the adult. Nature 416: 396–400

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grove G, Coplan JD, Hollander E (1997) The neuroanatomy of 5-HT dysregulation and panic disorder. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 9: 198–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gurguis GN, Uhde TW (1990) Plasma 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethylene glycol (MHPG) and growth hormone responses to yohimbine in panic disorder patients and normal controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology 15: 217–224

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gurguis GN, Mefford IN, Uhde TW (1991) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical activity in panic disorder: relationship to plasma catecholamine metabolites. Biol Psychiatry 30: 502–506

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton SP, Heiman GA, Haghighi F et al (1999) Lack of genetic linkage or association between a functional serotonin transporter polymorphism and panic disorder. Psychiatr Genet 9: 1–6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton SP, Fyer AJ, Durner M, et al (2003) Further genetic evidence for a panic disorder syndrome mapping to chromosome 13q. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 2550–2555

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamlin CL, Lydiard RB, Martin D, Dackis CA, Pottash AC, Sweeney D, Gold MS (1983) Urinary excretion of noradrenaline metabolite decreased in panic disorder. Lancet 2: 740–741

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Handley SL (1995) 5-Hydroxytryptamine pathways in anxiety and its treatment. Pharmacol Ther 66: 103–148

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hariri AR, Mattay VS, Tessitore A et al (2002) Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 297: 400–403

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heils A, Teufel A, Petri S, Stober G, Riederer P, Bengel D, Lesch KP (1996) Allelic variation of human serotonin transporter gene expression. J Neurochem 66: 2621–2624

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heim C, Owens MJ, Plotsky PM, Nemeroff CB (1997) Persistent changes in corticotropin-releasing factor systems due to early life stress: relationship to the pathophysiology of major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 33: 185–192

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendrie CA, Neill JC, Shepherd JK, Dourish CT (1993) The effects of CCKA and CCKB antagonists on activity in the black/white exploration model of anxiety in mice. Physiol Behav 54: 689–693

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman JP, Prewitt CM, Cullinan WE (1996) Neuronal circuit regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical stress axis. Crit Rev Neurobiol 10: 371–394

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hettema JM, Prescott CA, Kendler KS (2001) A population-based twin study of generalized anxiety disorder in men and women. J Nerv Ment Dis 189: 413–420

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hettema JM, Annas P, Neale MC, Kendler KS, Fredrikson M (2003) A twin study of the genetics of fear conditioning. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60: 702–708

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Highley JD, King ST, Hasert MF, Champux M, Suomi SJ, Linnoila M (1996) Stability of interindividual differences in serotonin function and its relationship to severe aggression and competent social behaviour in rhesus macaque females. Neuropsychopharmacology 14: 67–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holsboer F (1999) The rationale for corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor (CRH-R) antagonists to treat depression and anxiety. J Psychiatr Res 33: 181–214

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holsboer F, Barden N (1996) Antidepressants and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical regulation. Endocr Rev 17: 187–205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holsboer F, Spengler D, Heuser I (1992) The role of corticotropin-releasing hormone in the pathogenesis of Cushing’s disease, anorexia nervosa, alcoholism, affective disorders and dementia. Prog Brain Res 93: 385–417

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holt PE, Andrews G (1989) Provocation of panic: three elements of the panic reaction in four anxiety disorders. Behav Res Ther 27: 253–261

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiao JK, Potter WZ (1990) Mechanisms of action of antipanic drugs. In: Ballenger C (ed). Clinical aspects of panic disorder. Alan Liss, New York, pp 239–317

    Google Scholar 

  • Huether G, Ruther E (2000) Das serotonerge System. Uni-med, Bremen

    Google Scholar 

  • Inoue T, Tsuchiya K, Koyama T (1994) Regional changes in dopamine and serotonin activation with various intensity of physical and psychological stress in the rat brain. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 49: 911–920

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iny LJ, Pecknold J, Suranyi Cadotte BE, Bernier B, Luthe L, Nair NP, Meaney MJ (1994) Studies of a neurochemical link between depression, anxiety, and stress from [3H]imipramine and [3H]paroxetine binding on human platelets. Biol Psychiatry 36: 281–291

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ise K, Akiyoshi J, Horinouchi Y, Tsutsumi T, Isogawa K, Nagayama H (2003) Association between the CCK-A receptor gene and panic disorder. Am J Med Genet 118B: 29–31

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jabourian AP, Erlich M, Desvignes C, el Hadjam M, Bitton R (1992) Panic attacks and 24-hour ambulatory EEG monitoring. Ann Med Psychol 150: 240–245

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jang KL, Stein MB, Taylor S, Livesley WJ (1999) Gender differences in the etiology of anxiety sensitivity: a twin study. J Gend Specif Med 2: 39–44

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson MR, Lydiard RB (1995) The neurobiology of anxiety disorders. Psychiatr Clin N Am 18: 681–725

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson MR, Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC (1995) Panic disorder. Pathophysiology and drug treatment. Drugs 49: 328–344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel ER (1999) Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: a new intellectual framework of psychiatry revisited. Am J Psychiatry 156: 505–524

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaschka W, Feistel H, Ebert D (1995) Reduced benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorders measured by iomazenil SPECT. J Psychiatr Res 29: 427–434

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keck ME, Holsboer F (2001) Hyperactivity of CRH neuronal circuits as a target for therapeutic interventions in affective disorders. Peptides 22: 835–844

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelsy JE, Selvig AL, Knight BT (2000) Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder social phobia with the 5HT2 antagonist nefazodone. Anxiety disorders of America’s 20th annual conference, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1992) The genetic epidemiology of phobias in women. The interrelationship of agoraphobia, social phobia, situational phobia, and simple phobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49: 273–281

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1993) Panic disorder in women: a population-based twin study. Psychol Med 23: 397–406

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Walters EE, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1995) The structure of the genetic and environmental risk factors for six major psychiatric disorders in women. Phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, bulimia, major depression, and alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 374–383

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Jacobson KC, Myers J, Prescott CA (2002) Sex differences in genetic and environmental risk factors for irrational fears and phobias. Psychol Med 32: 209–217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy JL, Bradwejn J, Koszycki D, King N, Crowe R, Vincent J, Fourie O (1999) Investigation of cholecystokinin system genes in panic disorder. Mol Psychiatry 4: 284–285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy JL, Neves-Pereira M, King N, Lizak MV, Basile VS, Chartier MJ, Stein MB (2001) Dopamine system genes not linked to social phobia. Psychiatr Genet 11: 213–217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein D (1964) Delineation of two drug-responsive anxiety syndromes. Psychopharmacology 5: 397–408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein DF (1993) False suffocation alarms, spontaneous panics, and related conditions. An integrative hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50: 306–317

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein E, Zohar J, Geraci MF, Murphy DL, Uhde TW (1991) Anxiogenic effects of m-CPP in patients with panic disorder: comparison to caffeine’s anxiogenic effects. Biol Psychiatry 30: 973–984

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles JA, Fyer AJ, Vieland VJ et al (1998) Results of a genome-wide genetic screen for panic disorder. Am J Med Genet 81: 139–147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knutson B, Wolkowitz OM, Cole SW et al (1998) Selective alteration of personality and social behavior by serotonergic intervention. Am J Psychiatry 155: 373–379

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koenigsberg HW, Pollak CP, Fine J, Kakuma T (1994) Cardiac and respiratory activity in panic disorder: effects of sleep and sleep lactate infusions. Am J Psychiatry 151: 1148–1152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer MS, Cutler NR, Ballenger JC et al (1995) A placebo-controlled trial of L-365,260, a CCKB antagonist, in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 37: 462–466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krystal JH, Niehoff Deutsch D, Charney DS (1996) The biological basis of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 57: 23–33

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuboki T, Suematsu H (1992) Panic disorder. Nippon Rinsho 50: 2773–2782

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuikka JT, Pitkanen A, Lepola U et al (1995) Abnormal regional benzodiazepine receptor uptake in the prefrontal cortex in patients with panic disorder. Nucl Med Commun 16: 273–280

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LaBar KS, Gatenby JC, Gore JC, LeDoux JE, Phelps EA (1998) Human amygdala activation during conditioned fear acquisition and extinction: a mixed-trial fMRI study. Neuron 20: 937–945

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Last CG, Hersen M, Kazdin A, Orvaschel H, Perrin S (1991) Anxiety disorders in children and their families. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 928–934

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lauer CJ, Krieg JC (1992) Sleep electroencephalographic patterns and cranial computed tomography in anxiety disorders. Compr Psychiatry 33: 213–219

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux JE, Cicchetti P, Xagoraris A, Romanski LM (1990) The lateral amygdaloid nucleus: sensory interface of the amygdala in fear conditioning. J Neurosci 10: 1062–1069

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lepola U, Nousiainen U, Puranen M, Riekkinen P, Rimon R (1990) EEG and CT findings in patients with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 28: 721–727

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lesch KP, Wiesmann M, Hoh A et al (1992) 5-HT1A receptor-effector system responsivity in panic disorder. Psychopharmacology 106: 111–117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin AP, Saoud J, Struaman T, Gorman JM, Fyer AJ, Crawford R, Liebowitz MR (1993) Responses of generalized and discrete social phobics during public speaking. J Anxiety Disord 7: 207–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li D, Chokka P, Tibbo P (2001) Toward an integrative understanding of social phobia. J Psychiatry Neurosci 26: 190–202

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li YW, Hill G, Wong H et al (2003) Receptor occupancy of nonpeptide corticotropin-releasing factor 1 antagonist DMP696: correlation with drug exposure and anxiolytic efficacy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 305: 86–96

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz MR, Gorman JM, Fyer AJ, Dillon DJ, Klein DF (1984) Effects of naloxone on patients with panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 141: 995–997

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Gorman JM et al (1985) Specificity of lactate infusions in social phobia versus panic disorders. Am J Psychiatry 142: 947–950

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liebsch G, Landgraf R, Engelmann M, Lorscher P, Holsboer F (1999) Differential behavioural effects of chronic infusion of CRH 1 and CRH 2 receptor antisense oligonucleotides into the rat brain. J Psychiatr Res 33: 153–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu D, Diorio J, Tannenbaum B et al (1997) Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science 277: 1659–1662

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC, Laraia MT, Fossey MD, Beinfeld MC (1992) CSF cholecystokinin concentrations in patients with panic disorder and in normal comparison subjects. Am J Psychiatry 149: 691–693

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lydiard RB, Morton WA, Emmanuel NP et al (1993) Preliminary report: placebo-controlled, double-blind study of the clinical and metabolic effects of desipramine in panic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 29: 183–188

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon DF, Xu J, McMahon FJ, Simpson SG, Stine OC, McInnis MG, DePaulo JR (1998) Bipolar disorder and panic disorder in families: an analysis of chromosome 18 data. Am J Psychiatry 155: 829–831

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maddon KS, Felten DL (1995) Experimental basis for neuroimmune interactions. Physiol Rev 75: 77–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Malizia AL, Wilson SJ, Bell CM, Nutt DJ, Grasby PM (1997) Neural correlates of anxiety provocation in social phobia. Neuroimage 5: 301–305

    Google Scholar 

  • Malizia AL, Cunningham VJ, Bell CJ, Liddle PF, Jones T, Nutt DJ (1998) Decreased brain GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorder: preliminary results from a quantitative PET study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 715–720

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marazziti D, Rotondo A, Martini C et al (1994) Changes in peripheral benzodiazepine receptors in patients with panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychobiology 29: 8–11

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Marini G, Fornai F (1998) Naltrexone-induced panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 155: 447

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Santos R, Bulbena A, Prta M, Gago J, Molina L, Duró JC (1998) Association between joint hypermobility syndrome and panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1578–1583

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martins AP, Marras RA, Guimaraes FS (2000) Anxiolytic effect of a CRH receptor antagonist in the dorsal periaqueductal gray. Depress Anxiety 12: 99–101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Massana G, Serra-Grabulosa JM, Salgado-Pineda P, Gasto C, Junque C, Massana J, Mercader JM (2003) Parahippocampal gray matter density in panic disorder: a voxel-based morphometric study. Am J Psychiatry 160: 566–568

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathew S, Coplan JD (2004) Animal models of social anxiety. In: Bandelow B, Stein DJ (eds) Social anxiety disorder. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathew RJ, Ho BT, Kralik P, Taylor D, Semchuk K, Weinman M, Claghorn JL (1980) Catechol-O-methyltransferase and catecholamines in anxiety and relaxation. Psychiatry Res 3: 85–91

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathew RJ, Ho BT, Francis DJ, Taylor DL, Weinman ML (1982) Catecholamines and anxiety. Acta Psychiatr Scand 65: 142–147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews AM, Wilson WH (1987) Cerebral blood flow changes. Psychiatry Res 23: 285–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mavissakalian M, Perel J, Bowler K, Dealy R (1987) Trazodone in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 144: 785–787

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCann UD, Morgan CM, Geraci M, Slate SO, Murphy DL, Post RM (1997) Effects of the 5-HT3 antagonist, ondansetron, on the behavioral and physiological effects of pentagastrin in patients with panic disorder and social phobia. Neuropsychopharmacology 17: 360–369

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen B (1999a) The effects of stress on structural and functional plasticity in the hippocampus. In: Charney D (ed) Neurobiology of mental illness. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 475–493

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwen BS (1999b) Stress and the aging hippocampus. Front Neuroendocrinol 20: 49–70

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre IM, Judd FK, Marriott PM, Burrows GD, Norman TR (1989) Plasma melatonin levels in affective states. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 9: 159–164

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menzies RG, Clarke JC (1993) The etiology of fear of heights and its relationship to severity and individual response patterns. Behav Res Ther 31: 355–365

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miner CM, Davidson JR, Potts NL, Tupler LA, Charles HC, Krishnan KR (1995) Brain fluoxetine measurements using fluorine magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with social phobia. Biol Psychiatry 38: 696–698

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohler H, Fritschy JM, Rudolph U (2002) A new benzodiazepine pharmacology. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 300: 2–8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montkowsky A, Jahn H, Ströhle A et al (1998) C-type natriueretic peptide exerts opposing effecs to atrial natriuretic peptide on anxietyrelated behaviour in rats. Brain Res 792: 358–360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan MA, LeDoux JE (1995) Differential contribution of dorsal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex to the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear in rats. Behav Neurosci 109: 681–688

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris JS, Frith CD, Perrett DI, Rowland D, Young AW, Calder AJ, Dolan RJ (1996) A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature 383: 812–815

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mountz JM, Modell JG, Wilson MW, Curtis GC, Lee MA, Schmaltz S, Kuhl DE (1989) Positron emission tomographic evaluation of cerebral blood flow during state anxiety in simple phobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46: 501–504

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller N, Schwarz MJ (2003) Immunology in anxiety and depression. In: Kasper S, Sitsen JM (eds) Handbook of depression and anxiety. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 267–288

    Google Scholar 

  • Munck A, Guyre PM, Holbrook NJ (1984) Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocr Rev 5: 25–44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munjack DJ, Baltazar PL, DeQuattro V et al (1990) Generalized anxiety disorder: some biochemical aspects. Psychiatry Res 32: 35–43

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy BE, Filipini D, Ghadirian AM (1993) Possible use of glucocorticoid receptor antagonists in the treatment of major depression: preliminary results using RU 486. J Psychiatry Neurosci 18: 209–213

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nardi AE, Nascimento I, Valenca AM, Lopes FL, Zin WA, Mezzasalma MA, Versiani M (2002) A breath-holding challenge in panic disorder patients, their healthy first-degree relatives, and normal controls. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 133: 43–47

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nesse RM, Cameron OG, Curtis GC, McCann DS, Huber Smith MJ (1984) Adrenergic function in patients with panic anxiety. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41: 771–776

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nesse RM, Cameron OG, Buda AJ, McCann DS, Curtis GC, Huber Smith MJ (1985a) Urinary catecholamines and mitral valve prolapse in panic-anxiety patients. Psychiatry Res 14: 67–75

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nesse RM, Curtis GC, Thyer BA, McCann DS, Huber-Smith MJ, Knopf RF (1985b) Endocrine and cardiovascular responses during phobic anxiety. Psychosom Med 47: 320–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuys R, Voogd J, van Huijzen C (1991) Das Zentralnervensystem des Menschen. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Nordahl TE, Semple WE, Gross M et al (1990) Cerebral glucose metabolic differences in patients with panic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 3: 261–272

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noyes R Jr., Clarkson C, Crowe RR, Yates WR, McChesney CM (1987) A family study of generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry 144: 1019–10124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nutt DJ (1989) Altered central alpha2-adrenoceptor sensitivity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46: 165–169

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nutt DJ (2001) Neurobiological mechanisms in generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 22–28

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nutt DJ, Glue P, Lawson C, Wilson S (1990) Flumazenil provocation of panic attacks. Evidence for altered benzodiazepine receptor sensitivity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47: 917–925

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nutt DJ, Forshall S, Bell C, Rich A, Sandford J, Nash J, Argyropoulos S (1999) Mechanisms of action of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 9: S81–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Carroll RE, Moffoot AP, Van Beck M, Dougall N, Murray C, Ebmeier KP, Goodwin GM (1993) The effect of anxiety induction on the regional uptake of 99mTc-exametazime in simple phobia as shown by single photon emission tomography (SPET). J Affect Disord 28: 203–210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick TH, Hirshfeld-Becker DR (2002) The developmental psychopathology of social anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 51: 44–58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ontiveros A, Fontaine R, Breton G, Elie R, Fontaine S, Dery R (1989) Correlation of severity of panic disorder and neuroanatomical changes on magnetic resonance imaging. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci 1: 404–408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papp LA, Klein DF, Gorman JM (1993a) Carbon dioxide hypersensitivity, hyperventilation, and panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 150: 1149–1157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papp LA, Klein DF, Martinez J et al (1993b) Diagnostic and substance specificity of carbon-dioxide-induced panic. Am J Psychiatry 150: 250–257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov IP (1927) Conditioned reflexes: an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. Edited by Anrep GV (1960). Boyer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier G, Steinbusch HW, Verhofstad AA (1981) Immunoreactive substance P and serotonin present in the same dense-core vesicles. Nature 293: 71–72

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perna G, Bertani A, Caldirola D, Bellodi L (1996) Family history of panic disorder and hypersensitivity to CO2 in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 153: 1060–1064

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perna G, Caldirola D, Arancio C, Bellodi L (1997) Panic attacks: a twin study. Psychiatry Res 66: 69–71

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perna G, Bussi R, Allevi L, Bellodi L (1999) Sensitivity to 35% carbon dioxide in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 60: 379–384

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pichot W, Hansenne M, Gonzalez Moreno A, Ansseau M (1995) Growth hormone response to apomorphine in panic disorder: comparison with major depression and normal controls. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 245: 306–308

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pigott TA (1999) Gender differences in the epidemiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 60: 4–15

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitts F, McClure J (1967) Lactate metabolism in anxiety neurosis. New Engl J Med 277: 1329–1340

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plotsky PM, Meaney MJ (1993) Early, postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA, median eminence CRF content and stress-induced release in adult rats. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 18: 195–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl R, Ettedgui E, Bridges M, Lycaki H, Jimerson D, Kopin I, Rainey JM (1987) Plasma MHPG levels in lactate and isoproterenol anxiety states. Biol Psychiatry 22: 1127–1136

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl R, Yeragani V, Balon R et al (1988) Isoproterenol-induced panic attacks. Biol Psychiatry 42: 891–902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potts NL, Book S, Davidson JR (1996) The neurobiology of social phobia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 11: 43–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pyke RE, Greenberg HS (1986) Norepinephrine challenges in panic patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 6: 279–285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quesney LF (1986) Clinical and EEG features of complex partial seizures of temporal lobe origin. Epilepsia 27: S27–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radulovic J, Ruhmann A, Liepold T, Spiess J (1999) Modulation of learning and anxiety by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and stress: differential roles of CRF receptors 1 and 2. J Neurosci 19: 5016–5025

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rainey JM Jr., Pohl RB, Williams M, Knitter E, Freedman RR, Ettedgui E (1984a) A comparison of lactate and isoproterenol anxiety states. Psychopathology 17: 74–82

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rainey M Jr., Ettedgui E, Pohl B, Balon R, Weinberg P, Yelonek S, Berchou R (1984b) The beta-receptor: isoproterenol anxiety states. Psychopathology 17: 40–51

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raleigh MJ, Brammer GL, McGuire MT, Yuwiler A (1985) Dominant social status facilitates the behavioural effects of serotonergic agonists. Brain Res 348: 274–282

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapaport MH (1998) Circulating lymphocyte phenotypic surface markers in anxiety disorder patients and normal volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 43: 458–463

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch SL, Savage CR, Alpert NM et al (1995) A positron emission tomographic study of simple phobic symptom provocation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52: 20–28

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reich J, Yates W (1988) Family history of psychiatric disorders in social phobia. Compr Psychiatry 29: 72–75

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiman EM (1997) The application of positron emission tomography to the study of normal and pathologic emotions. J Clin Psychiatry 58: 4–12

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiman EM, Raichle ME, Butler FK, Herscovitch P, Robins E (1984) A focal brain abnormality in panic disorder, a severe form of anxiety. Nature 310: 683–685

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiman EM, Raichle ME, Robins E, Butler FK, Herscovitch P, Fox P, Perlmutter J (1986) The application of positron emission tomography to the study of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 143: 469–477

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiman EM, Raichle ME, Robins E et al (1989) Neuroanatomical correlates of a lactate-induced anxiety attack. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46: 493–500

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rickels K, Schweizer E, DeMartinis N, Mandos L, Mercer C (1997) Gepirone and diazepam in generalized anxiety disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol 17: 272–277

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rocca P, Ferrero P, Gualerzi A, Zanalda E, Maina G, Bergamasco B, Ravizza L (1991) Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors in anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 84: 537–544

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose RJ, Ditto WB (1983) A developmental-genetic analysis of common fears from early adolescence to early adulthood. Child Devel 54: 361–368

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum AH, Schatzberg AF, Jost FA, Cross PD, Wells LA, Jiang NS, Maruta T (1983) Urinary free cortisol levels in anxiety. Psychosomatics 24: 835–837

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum JF, Biederman J, Bolduc EA, Hirshfeld DR, Faraone SV, Kagan J (1992) Comorbidity of parental anxiety disorders as risk for childhood-onset anxiety in inhibited children. Am J Psychiatry 149: 475–481

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rotondo A, Mazzanti C, Dell’Osso L et al (2002) Catechol o-methyltransferase, serotonin transporter, and tryptophan hydroxylase gene polymorphisms in bipolar disorder patients with and without comorbid panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 159: 23–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy MA, Neale MC, Pedersen NL, Mathe AA, Kendler KS (1995) A twin study of generalized anxiety disorder and major depression. Psychol Med 25: 1037–1049

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy-Byrne PP, Uhde TW, Post RM, Gallucci W, Chrousos GP, Gold PW (1986a) The corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 143: 896–899

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy-Byrne PP, Uhde TW, Sack DA, Linnoila M, Post RM (1986b) Plasma HVA and anxiety in patients with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 21: 849–853

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy-Byrne PP, Cowley DS, Greenblatt DJ, Shader RI, Hommer D (1990) Reduced benzodiazepine sensitivity in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47: 534–538

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy-Byrne PP, Wingerson DK, Radant A, Greenblatt DJ, Cowley DS (1996) Reduced benzodiazepine sensitivity in patients with panic disorder: comparison with patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and normal subjects. Am J Psychiatry 153: 1444–1449

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rupprecht R, Zwanzger P (2003) Significance of GABA-A receptors for the pathophysiology and therapy of panic disorders. Nervenarzt 74: 543–551

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sand PG, Mori T, Godau C et al (2002) Norepinephrine transporter gene (NET) variants in patients with panic disorder. Neurosci Lett 333: 41–44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sasson Y, Iancu I, Fux M, Taub M, Dannon PN, Zohar J (1999) A double-blind crossover comparison of clomipramine and desipramine in the treatment of panic disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 9: 191–196

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlegel S, Steinert H, Bockisch A, Hahn K, Schloesser R, Benkert O (1994) Decreased benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorder measured by IOMAZENIL-SPECT. A preliminary report. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 244: 49–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider P, Evans L, Ross Lee L, Wiltshire B, Eadie M, Kenardy J, Hoey H (1987) Plasma biogenic amine levels in agoraphobia with panic attacks. Pharmacopsychiatry 20: 102–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider F, Weiss U, Kessler C et al (1999) Subcortical correlates of differential classical conditioning of aversive emotional reactions in social phobia. Biol Psychiatry 45: 863–871

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneier FR, Liebowitz MR, Abi-Dargham A, Zea-Ponce Y, Lin SH, Laruelle M (2000) Low dopamine D(2) receptor binding potential in social phobia. Am J Psychiatry 157: 457–459

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz CE, Wright CI, Shin LM, Kagan J, Rauch SL (2003) Inhibited and uninhibited infants »grown up«: adult amydgdalar response to novelty. Science 300: 1952–1953

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seibyl JP, Krystal JH, Price LH, Woods SW, D’Amico C, Heninger GR, Charney DS (1991) Effects of ritanserin on the behavioral, neuroendocrine, and cardiovascular responses to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine in healthy human subjects. Psychiatry Res 38: 227–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman MEP (1971) Phobias and preparedness. Behav Ther 2: 307–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sevy S, Papadimitriou GN, Surmont DW, Goldman S, Mendlewicz J (1989) Noradrenergic function in generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, and healthy subjects. Biol Psychiatry 25: 141–152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour PA, Schmidt AW, Schulz DW (2003) The pharmacology of CP-154, 526, a non-peptide antagonist of the CRH1 receptor: a review. CNS Drug Rev 9: 57–96

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shlik J, Aluoja A, Vasar V, Vasar E, Podar T, Bradwejn J (1997) Effects of citalopram treatment on behavioural, cardiovascular and neuroendocrine response to cholecystokinin tetrapeptide challenge in patients with panic disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 22: 332–340

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skre I, Onstad S, Torgersen S, Lygren S, Kringlen E (1993) A twin study of DSM-III-R anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 88: 85–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smagin GN, Swiergiel AH, Dunn AJ (1995) Corticotropin-releasing factor administered into the locus coeruleus, but not the parabrachial nucleus, stimulates norepinephrine release in the prefrontal cortex. Brain Res Bull 36: 71–76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smoller JW, Tsuang MT (1998) Panic and phobic anxiety: defining phenotypes for genetic studies. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1152–1162

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sramek JJ, Costa JF, Adams JB, Macpherson A, Cutler NR (1994) Singlesite findings in a study of the safety and efficacy of a CCKB receptor antagonist, CI-988, in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Anxiety 1: 242–243

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MB, Leslie WD (1996) A brain single photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) study of generalized social phobia. Biol Psychiatry 39: 825–828

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MB, Tancer ME, Uhde TW (1992) Heart rate and plasma norepinephrine responsivity to orthostatic challenge in anxiety disorders. Comparison of patients with panic disorder and social phobia and normal control subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49: 311–317

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MB, Asmundson GJ, Chartier M (1994) Autonomic responsivity in generalized social phobia. J Affect Disord 31: 211–221

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MB, Delaney SM, Chartier MJ, Kroft CD, Hazen AL (1995) [3H]paroxetine binding to platelets of patients with social phobia: comparison to patients with panic disorder and healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 37: 224–228

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MB, Jang KL, Livesley WJ (1999) Heritability of anxiety sensitivity: a twin study. Am J Psychiatry 156: 246–251

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MB, Goldin PR, Sareen J, Zorrilla LT, Brown GG (2002) Increased amygdala activation to angry and contemptuous faces in generalized social phobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 1027–1034

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stemberger RT, Turner SM, Beidel DC, Calhoun KS (1995) Social phobia: an analysis of possible developmental factors. J Abnorm Psychol 104: 526–531

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart RS, Devous MD Sr., Rush AJ, Lane L, Bonte FJ (1988) Cerebral blood flow changes during sodium-lactate-induced panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 145: 442–449

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strörle A, JAhn H, Montkowki A et al (1997) Central and peripheral administration of atriopeptin is anxiolytic in rats. Neuroendocrinology 65: 210–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ströhle A, Kellner M, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K (1998) Effect of flumazenil in lactate-sensitive patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 155: 610–612

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ströhle A, Kellner M, Holsboer F, Wiedemann K (2001) Anxiolytic activity of atrial natriuretic peptide in patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 158: 1514–1516

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ströhle A, Romeo E, di Michele F, Pasini A, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F, Rupprecht R (2002) GABA(A) receptor-modulating neuroactive steroid composition in patients with panic disorder before and during paroxetine treatment. Am J Psychiatry 159: 145–147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ströhle A, Romeo E, di Michele F et al (2003) Induced panic attacks shift gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulatory neuroactive steroid composition in patients with panic disorder: preliminary results. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60: 161–168

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stutzmann GE, LeDoux JE (1999) GABAergic antagonists block the inhibitory effects of serotonin in the lateral amygdala: a mechanism for modulation of sensory inputs related to fear conditioning. J Neurosci (Online) 19: RC8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan GM, Coplan JD, Gorman JM (1998) Psychoneuroendocrinology of anxiety disorders. Psychiatr Clin N Am 21: 397–412

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svensson T, Usdin T (1978) Feedback inhibition of brain noradrenaline neurons by tricyclic antidepressants α2 receptor mediation. Science 202: 1089–1091

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tancer ME, Stein MB, Uhde TW (1993) Growth hormone response to intravenous clonidine in social phobia: comparison to patients with panic disorder and healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 34: 591–595

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tancer ME, Stein MB, Uhde TW (1994) Lactic acid response to caffeine in panic disorder: comparison with social phobics and normal controls. Anxiety 1: 138–140

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Targum SD (1990) Differential responses to anxiogenic challenge studies in patients with major depressive disorder and panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 28: 21–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Targum SD (1992) Cortisol response during different anxiogenic challenges in panic disorder patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology 17:453–458

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Targum SD, Marshall LE (1989) Fenfluramine provocation of anxiety in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 28: 295–306

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor S (1998) The hierarchic structure of fears. Behav Res Ther 36: 205–214

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thiebot MH, Hamon M, Soubrie P (1982) Attenuation of induced-anxiety in rats by chlordiazepoxide: role of raphe dorsalis benzodiazepine binding sites and serotoninergic neurons. Neuroscience 7: 2287–2294

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiihonen J, Kuikka J, Bergstrom K, Lepola U, Koponen H, Leinonen E (1997) Dopamine reuptake site densities in patients with social phobia. Am J Psychiatry 154: 239–242

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiller JW, Biddle N, Maguire KP, Davies BM (1988) The dexamethasone suppression test and plasma dexamethasone in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 23: 261–270

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiller JW, Bouwer C, Behnke K (1999) Moclobemide and fluoxetine for panic disorder. International Panic Disorder Study Group. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 249: S7–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tillfors M, Furmark T, Marteinsdottir I, Fredrikson M (2002) Cerebral blood flow during anticipation of public speaking in social phobia: a PET study. Biol Psychiatry 52: 1113–1119

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Timpl P, Spanagel R, Sillaber I et al (1998) Impaired stress response and reduced anxiety in mice lacking a functional corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1110. Nature Genet 19: 162–166

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torgersen S (1979) The nature and origin of common phobic fears. Br J Psychiatry 134: 343–351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torgersen S (1983) Genetic factors in anxiety disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40: 1085–1089

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Törk I, Hornung JP (1990) Raphe nuclei and the serotonergic system. In: Paxinos G, Orlando FL (eds) The human nervous system. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 1001–1022

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tupler LA, Davidson JR, Smith RD, Lazeyras F, Charles HC, Krishnan KR (1997) A repeat proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in social phobia. Biol Psychiatry 42: 419–424

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhde TW, Vittone BJ, Siever LJ, Kaye WH, Post RM (1986) Blunted growth hormone response to clonidine in panic disorder patients. Biol Psychiatry 21: 1081–1085

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhde TW, Berrettini WH, Roy Byrne PP, Boulenger JP, Post RM (1987) Platelet [3H]imipramine binding in patients with panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry 22: 52–58

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhde TW, Stein MB, Vittone BJ, Siever LJ, Boulenger JP, Klein E, Mellman TA (1989) Behavioral and physiologic effects of short-term and long-term administration of clonidine in panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46: 170–177

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhde TW, Tancer ME, Gelernter CS, Vittone BJ (1994) Normal urinary free cortisol and postdexamethasone cortisol in social phobia: comparison to normal volunteers. J Affect Disord 30: 155–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Ameringen M, Mancini C (2004) The promise of neurobiology in social anxiety disorder. In: Bandelow B, Stein DJ (eds) Social anxiety disorder. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • van Ameringen M, Mancini C, Oakman JM, Kamath M, Nahmias C, Szechtman HA (1998) Pilot study of PET in social phobia. Biol Psychiatry 43: 31–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Linden GJ, Stein DJ, van Balkom AJ (2000) The efficacy of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for social anxiety disorder (social phobia): a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 15: S15–23

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Megen HJ, Westenberg HG, den Boer JA, Slaap B, van Es Radhakishun F, Pande AC (1997) The cholecystokinin-B receptor antagonist CI-988 failed to affect CCK-4 induced symptoms in panic disorder patients. Psychopharmacology 129: 243–248

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Vliet I, den Boer JA, Westenberg HGM (1994) Psychopharmacological treatment of social phobia — a double blind placebo controlled study with fluvoxamine. Psychopharmacology 115: 128–134

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Vliet IM, Westenberg HG, den Boer JA (1996) Effects of the 5-HT1A receptor agonist flesinoxan in panic disorder. Psychopharmacology 127: 174–180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veit R, Flor H, Erb M, Hermann C, Lotze M, Grodd W, Birbaumer N (2002) Brain circuits involved in emotional learning in antisocial behavior and social phobia in humans. Neurosci Lett 328: 233–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veltman DJ, van Zijderveld GA, van Dyck R (1996) Epinephrine infusions in panic disorder: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Affect Disord 39: 133–140

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verburg K, Griez E, Meijer J, Pols H (1995) Discrimination between panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder by 35% carbon dioxide challenge. Am J Psychiatry 152: 1081–1083

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Versiani M, Cassano G, Perugi G, Benedetti A, Mastalli L, Nardi A, Savino M (2002) Reboxetine, a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 63: 31–37

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viana MB, Graeff FG, Loschmann PA (1997) Kainate microinjection into the dorsal raphe nucleus induces 5-HT release in the amygdala and periaqueductal gray. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58: 167–172

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vieland VJ, Goodman DW, Chapman T, Fyer AJ (1996) New segregation analysis of panic disorder. Am J Med Genet 67: 147–153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Villacres EC, Hollifield M, Katon WJ, Wilkinson CW, Veith RC (1987) Sympathetic nervous system activity in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 21: 313–321

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wedekind D, Bandelow B, Broocks A, Hajak G, Ruther E (2000) Salivary, total plasma and plasma free cortisol in panic disorder. J Neural Transm 107: 831–837

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman MM, Fyer AJ, Haghighi F et al (2000) Potential panic disorder syndrome: clinical and genetic linkage evidence. Am J Med Genet 96: 24–35

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weizman R, Tanne Z, Granek M, Karp L, Golomb M, Tyano S, Gavish M (1987) Peripheral benzodiazepine binding sites on platelet membranes are increased during diazepam treatment of anxious patients. Eur J Pharmacol 138: 289–292

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welkowitz LA, Papp L, Martinez J, Browne S, Gorman JM (1999) Instructional set and physiological response to CO2 inhalation. Am J Psychiatry 156: 745–748

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westberg P, Modigh K, Lisjo P, Eriksson E (1991) Higher postdexamethasone serum cortisol levels in agoraphobic than in nonagoraphobic panic disorder patients. Biol Psychiatry 30: 247–256

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wik G, Fredrikson M, Fischer H (1997) Evidence of altered cerebral blood-flow relationships in acute phobia. Int J Neurosci 91: 253–263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson DJ, Thompson JM, Lambert GW et al (1998) Sympathetic activity in patients with panic disorder at rest, under laboratory mental stress, and during panic attacks. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 511–520

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woo JM, Yoon KS, Yu BH (2002) Catechol O-methyltransferase genetic polymorphism in panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 159: 1785–1787

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood SJ, Toth M (2001) Molecular pathways of anxiety revealed by knockout mice. Mol Neurobiol 23: 101–119

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SW, Charney DS, Goodman WK, Heninger GR (1988a) Carbon dioxide-induced anxiety. Behavioral, physiologic, and bioche mical effects of carbon dioxide in patients with panic disorders and healthy subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45: 43–52

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SW, Koster K, Krystal JK, Smith EO, Zubal IG, Hoffer PB, Charney DS (1988b) Yohimbine alters regional cerebral blood flow in panic disorder. Lancet 2: 678

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SW, Charney DS, Silver JM, Krystal JH, Heninger GR (1991) Behavioral, biochemical, and cardiovascular responses to the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 36: 115–127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Buchsbaum M, Hershey T, Hazlett E, Sciotte N, Johnson J (1991) PET in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 29: 1181–1199

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wurthmann C, Bogerts B, Gregor J, Baumann B, Effenberger O, Dohring W (1997) Frontal CSF enlargement in panic disorder: a qualitative CT-scan study. Psychiatry Res 76: 83–87

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshioka M, Matsumoto M, Togashi H, Saito H (1996) Effect of conditioned fear stress on dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex. Neurosci Lett 209: 201–203

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwanzger P, Baghai TC, Schule C, Minov C, Padberg F, Moller HJ, Rupprecht R (2001) Tiagabine improves panic and agoraphobia in panic disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 656–657

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwanzger P, Eser D, Aicher S et al (2003) Effects of alprazolam on cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide-induced panic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis activity: a placebo-controlled study. Neuropsychopharmacology 28: 979–984

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer Medizin Verlag Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bandelow, B., Wedekind, D. (2006). Angst — Neurobiologie. In: Förstl, H., Hautzinger, M., Roth, G. (eds) Neurobiologie psychischer Störungen. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-30887-3_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-30887-3_11

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-540-25694-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-30887-4

  • eBook Packages: Medicine (German Language)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics