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<<
Design Guide §)
»
= Se
CLBCND Enkamat® Design Manual
Projectnumber 80233
Principal
Colbond Geosynthetics
Amhem
JA. van Herpen
Capelle aan den Issel, March 1997
© Colbond Geosynthetics
‘The company name Akzo Nobel Geosynthatics used in this report is our former name. CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2 ENKAMAT
24
22
23
What is Enkamat
How does Enkamat function
Enkamat types
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATIONS
34
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
General
Protection of slopes and embankments against erosion by rainfall and
wind
Establishment of vegetation on steep weathered slopes
Soil stabilisation on smooth surfaces .
Protection of banks against hydraulic loadings
Protection of watercourses against hydraulic loadings
Protection of defences
Special applications
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN APPROACH
CHAPTER 5 SIMPLIFIED DESIGN
5.4
52
5.2.1
622
5.2.3
53
5.3.1
632
533
53.4
Gatomet
General
Wet applications
Step 1: is there @ need for erosion protection
Step 2: determine the position and length of the Enkamat on the slope,
‘Step 3: choose the correct type
Dry applications
Step 1: establish the erosion resistance of the subsoil
Step 2: determine the "slope factor"
Step 3: determine the "vegetation factor"
Step 4: determine the type of Enkamat to be used
Enrarat design manual
"1
1
12
14
14
15
18
49
19
19
19
19
20
22
22
23
23
24 CHAPTER 6 DETAILED DESIGN
64 General
62 Hydraulic loadings
624 Velocity
6.22 Waves
6.23 Water level.
63 Rain Run-off
64 Geotechnical aspects
644 Introduction
642 Soil stabilisation on geomembranes
643 Anchoring cae
644 Growth of vegetation on steep siopes
65 Vegetation growth
66 ‘Transport and installation
661 Transport and storage
662 Installation... 2...
67 Joints and connections .
68 Environmental impact . .
69 Durability
6.10 Maintenance
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1 PROPERTIES OF ENKAMAT TYPES.
APPENDIX 2 INSTALLATION OF ENKAMAT TYPES
25
25
25
25
33
38
38
40
a“
44
44
45
47
47
. 47
48
48
49
51
59
FEE A CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Nature itself provides an excellent product to protect soil against erosion which is
vegetation. Sometimes however nature needs a helping hand, for instance if erosive
forces are to large or when vegetation is to be developed under difficult conditions.
Enkamat is an open-three dimensional mat for the reinforcement of vegetation and is
used world-wide in erosion control and landscaping. The mat is available in several
types, each type adapted to the conditions to which it is subjected. For various
applications a specific mat is available.
This manual provides the necessary information to design with Enkamat for a variety of
applications. These applications are:
= protection of slopes and embankments against hydraulic loads and rainfall;
- establishment of vegetation on steep slopes,
= earth stabilisation on smooth surfaces.
In Chapter 2 the relevant information is provided about the way Enkamat functions and
about the available types.
Chapter 3 discusses the various applications for Enkamat, and the particular type for
each application is shown. Indicated is which mattype is suited for a certain application.
The design methods are dealt with in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5 a simplified design
method is shown and Chapter 6 gives a more detailed method. First a summary is given
of the design aspects to be considered depending on the application. Next these design
aspects are worked out in ready-to use design recommendations and methods
For special applications different design aspects may have to be taken into account.
Also special mats can be manufactured for these circumstances. In this case it is
recommended that specialist advise be sought, for instance by contacting the
manufacturer or the supplier of Enkamat.
Note:
The weights and dimensions of Enkamat, mentioned in this design manual are indicative
values. When designing, data should be taken from the product data sheet attached as
Appendix 1.
Desnvos
Evan deat manuaT CHAPTER 2
ENKAMAT
24 What is Enkamat
A plain vegetation is a very good way to protect soll from erosion by water and wind.
Sometimes however vegetation is absent, for instance just after construction works, or
difficult to establish, for instance on steep slopes. Also the loadings may be too high for
piain vegetation to withstand,
Often a temporary protection of the soil to enable the development of vegetation or to
give extra strength to the vegetation is desired.
Enkamat is an open three dimensional synthetic mat consisting of randomly placed
filaments of polyamide (nylon),
‘The objective of Enkamat is twofold:
- the first objective is to provide temporary protection to the bare soil to encourage
the development of vegetation under circumstances where this is normally difficult
or impossible;
- the second objective of Enkamat is to permanently reinforce vegetation. It gives
extra strength to the vegetation so that higher loadings can be withstood than with
a plain vegetation.
Due to the fact that Enkamat is made of an inert material the durability is very high and
its protective function is maintained for a long period.
Natural vegetation reinforcement materials, such as jute, coir, flax, wood wool or
strawmats, only last for a short period of time and are only meant to provide temporary
protection up to the point that the vegetation can take over this task. Enkamat,
however, also provides extra strength to the vegetation after it is fully grown.
Also the quality of these natural materials is not constant, Enkamat is manufactured
under controlled conditions. This ensures a high quality of the material according to ISO
9001 standards
In fact Enkamat fills the gap between a protection with a plain vegetation and a more
radical protection with materials such as rock, concrete or asphaltic mixtures.
The advantage is:
- protection of a ground surface by vegetation is to be preferred from an
environmental point of view. Aesthetically, reinforced grass is indistinguishable
from a plain vegetation cover so it blends in with the landscape. Also, the use of
vegetation encourages the development of flora and fauna;
- generally, vegetation reinforcement is cheaper than the more traditional
constructions using hard materials:
- under normal circumstances, vegetation reinforcement is easier to place than
more traditional methods.
emfowet Rea ee RT 2.2 How does Enkamat function
A vegetation cover provides protection to the subsoil against erosion in several ways:
= a composite soil/root mat is formed at the surface with a higher erosion resistance
than soil alone. This mat is anchored to the subsoil by the roots;
- the vegetation provides ground cover and reduces erosive velocities,
Enkamat
Figure 2.1. Soil, roots and fibers working together.
With Enkamat the vegetation roots bind around the filaments thus forming a dense and
continuous system of filaments, soil and roots (Figure 2.1). This implies that (Hewlett,
1987)
- the soil itself is given extra strength to withstand loadings. The formation of local
weak spots is retarded. This certainly is an advantage in situations where the
vegetation cover has not fully been developed yet and when bare spots are
present;
- the root structure is given assistance in restraining soil particles from washing out;
- lateral continuity of piants is improved which results in @ reduction in the risk of
localised failure which in its turn may initiate more severe damage.
2.3 Enkamat types
Depending on the purpose for which Enkamat is to be used several mat types are
available
These types are (Figure 2.2)
= Open Enkamat.
Plain Enkamat consisting of an entirely open structure of polyamide
monofilaments. It is available in thicknesses of 9, 10, 18 and 20 mm. The volume
of open space is over 95%
‘When higher loads are present the thicker mat type is to be used, under low
loading conditions the thinner mat.
This type of mat is used in situations where protection is needed of the
vegetation against erosion and a proper vegetation can establish by itself in time.
Examples of applications are the protection of newly built slopes and
embankments,
eee: a Open Enkamat Flat-back Enkamat
(Enkamat 7010/7020) (Enkamat 7210/7220)
Reinforced Enkamat Pre-filled Enkamat
(Enkamat S) (Enkamat A20)
Pre-grown Enkamat
(Enkazon)
Figure 2.2 Enkamat types.
Soon
‘Enkamat design manual Flat-back Enkamat
This mat type is identical to the Open Enkamat with the exce;
underside of the mat is provided with a flat-back made of a two dimensional layer
of filaments. This does not affect the water-permeability,
The flattened underside allows the mat to be filled with mineral chippings. Filling
increases the resistance against erosion, convenient in situations in which
vegetation is not allowed to develop fully, for instance when the mat is to be
placed (partially) under water.
On embankments it is therefore possible to achieve a continuous protection of the
entire slope above as well as below water using the same construction by simply
filing the Enkamat with gravel chippings on those locations where vegetative
growth is difficult or impossible.
The mat is available in two thicknesses: 9 and 18 mm; the choice depends on
the loading conditions.
Pre-filled Enkamat
‘A mat factory filed with bitumen bound mineral chipping in such a way that the
mat remains permeable. Its weight is approximately 20 kg/m?
The permeability and the capacity for vegetative growth are preserved. This mat
is much heavier than the other types and can withstand high hydraulic loadings
under water where a vegetative cover is not present
The thickness of the mat is 20 mm.
Reinforced Enkamat
This mat is reinforced and can withstand high tensile forces. It is installed on very
steep slopes and on smooth sublayers or liners where development of vegetation
is desired, Examples are steep rocky slopes and the covering of geomembranes
used in pond lining
The reinforcement of the mat is achieved in three ways:
- a polyester grid is intertwisted in an Open Enkamat;
7 a woven geotextile is stitched to an Open Enkamat;
- reinforcing threads are integrated in the length direction of an Open
Enkamat
Depending on the construction tensile strengths may vary from 8 kN/m up to 300
kim, the thickness from 8 to 23 mm,
Pre-grown Enkamat
When immediate protection by grass is required or when the time available to
achieve a dense vegetative cover is insufficient a Pre-grown Enkamat can be
applied, This is an Open Enkamat, 10 mm thick, in which a turf is pre-grown
under optimum conditions. It is grown on a perforated polyethylene film and
harvested without disturbing the roots, ensuring rapid adherance to the surface In Appendix 1 @ review is provided of the material properties, dimensions and weights of
the several types.
For specific applications special Enkamats can be made. For example, an Enkamat can
be combined with a geotextile filter when groundwater gradients are present which may
erode the subsoil, or Enkamat can be combined with protection layers.
It is advised under these circumstances to gain specialist advise. CHAPTER 3
APPLICATIONS
3.4 General
The following applications have been identified (Akzo, 1994).
- protection of slopes and embankments against erosion by rainfall and wind.
- establishment of vegetation on steep weathered slopes;
- earth stabilisation on smooth surfaces;
- protection of embankments against hydraulic loadings:
- protection of waterways against hydraulic loadings;
= protection of water defences;
- special applications.
In Figure 3.1 a review is given of these applications and the mat type (section 2.3) to be
used. In the sections below these fields of application are discussed in more detail
3.2 Protection of slopes and embankments against erosion by rainfall and wind
Newly constructed slopes, for example road and railway embankments, on which the
vegetation is poor or absent can be subject to severe erosion by rainfall and wind. Soil
particles on the bare embankment are transported by run-off or wind, gradually resulting
into deep gulleys and deformations (Figure 3.2, page 10).
Enkamat can give initial protection against this type of erosion, Keep the fertile soil and
seeds in place and supports the growth of the vegetation.
The Enkamat is seeded with a suitable seed mixture and filled with humus or topsoil. On
very steep and long slopes the mats can be filled and seeded hydraulically
The development of a proper vegetative covering normally takes several months. When
this time is not available, for instance when seeding has to take place at the end of the
growing season, a pre-grown Enkamat can be used
It is important that the Enkamat is placed on a smooth base, particularly when eroded
embankments have to be covered. The surface has to be levelled and the holes filled
and compacted to give a regular surface
When rainfall is very extensive it is necessary to provide extra drainage provisions such
as discharge channels. On very long slopes it is recommended to construct small banks
on the slope in combination with drainage in order to reduce run-off velocities.
Entarnat deean mana Application Consideration Mat type
— om
f ‘ontitons Exfamat 8 nm
[Protection cf slopes ‘igh Hoos Open
ania Sax oe ane
Ses
pi 7
ease son
om aoe
farnees ees
Stems» Css
“ee rs
(iinet Sent
—— oy
cen ainen
amiat
‘araaae om
ee ames oettzen
eer oon
mame nee
[tenons fae)
const \ eels
ee
fat omeowow | | taome | roman
Saha = esttttnn [often
[“omere
eneece eas
= Eiet
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Prtectonct Sone ener
tae J toneiva =
ee SS eee pote HGS.)
menow | “emus
4 a
I -taoae om, )
a ont etToun
moc
ier —
oan esta
as aoa
Sones = —
als wien [BE Tan
om — ——
en
fire a
coon, reCitrSeaes
Figure 3.1 Review of Enkamats and their applications. No Enkamat With Enkamat, 20 mm
oS
Figure 3.2. Protection of slopes and embankments against erosion by rainfall and
wind
Left hand side from comer is unprotected
Right hand side from comer is protected with Enkamat 20 mm.
Figure 3.3. Establishment of vegetation on steep weathered slopes.
Sanioroot
aT ae Figure 3.4 Earth stabilisation on smooth surfaces,
Figure 3.6 Enkamat protection on banks.
= $<
10 3.3 Establishment of vegetation on steep weathered slopes
‘Steep weathered rocky slopes, resulting for instance from excavation or from cliff
erosion, can be vegetated with the help of Enkamat (Figure 3.3).
(On regular surfaces the Reinforced Enkamat is to be used since the mat is subjected to
high tensile forces due to the weight it has to carry, The Enkamat has to be anchored
firmly at the top of the slope.
On irregular surfaces Open Enkamats are to be used as its fiexitility permits it to adjust
to indentations of the surface. Dense pinning is required to ensure proper contact
between mat and surface and to transfer loads.
A combination with a metallic grid can be made for protection from falling stones.
The Enkamat forms a flexible grip layer in which soil is retained and seeds can
germinate. Filling and seeding of the mat can be done hydraulically. Creeping and
climbing plants may be used to reinforce the vegetation,
Revegetation of steep slopes is preferable because.
- the appearance of the slope is improved;
- rumoffis reduced;
- erosion can be controlled:
- the root structure reinforces the weathered substrate;
- falling stones are prevented.
Revegetation may even preclude the necessity for the application of more substantial
and expensive structures such as concrete retaining walls or stone pitching
With these types of slopes special attention should be given to the geotechnical aspects.
Revegetation reduces run-off, gives a better erosion control and contributes to the
stability of the slope, however the slope itself must be geotechnically stable. The risk of
slip or sliding must be sufficiently low. When the overall stability of the slope cannot be
guaranteed other measures have to be taken, such as reinforced soil, retaining walls or
soil nailing,
3.4 Soil stabilisation on smooth surfaces
Geomembranes or clay layers are generally used as a cover for landfils and refuse
dumps. On top of the geomembrane an extra protective covering is placed consisting of
a sufficiently thick soil layer. Between the geomembrane and soil layer a drainage layer
should be used. in order to be able to place the soil layer on the smooth
geomembrane/drainage layer so that the soil does not slide down, extra grip may be
necessary. Reinforced Enkamat is often used as a grip layer between the
geomembrane/drainage layer and the soil because of its ability to withstand high tensile
forces caused by the weight of the soil (Figure 3.4),
A similar application is the soil cover of geomembranes in water reservoirs.
FER 9H
" A Reinforced Enkamat is also used on the inside of refuse dumps which are covered
with a geomembrane. The mat provides protection of the geomembrane against UV-
radiation and mechanical damage during filing operations (Figure 3.5)
Strengthened Enkamat
Figure 3.5 Enkamat as protection during filling operations on cumpsites,
3.5 Protection of banks against hydraulic loadings
Banks of canals, lakes, ponds, rivers, brooks, ete. are subject to attack by waves and
currents. Waves are generated by wind and ships, currents result from discharges,
ships, etc. (Figure 3.6).
The height and duration of the attack may differ from situation to situation. For instance
during high water discharges or storm perieds large forces are exerted on the
‘embankment lasting only for a short period.
A natural dense vegetation generally provides a very adequate protection against
hydraulic attack when this loading is not too high andior the duration of the hydraulic
load is short
‘Where a plain vegetative cover will not provide sufficient erosion resistance a revetment
can be constructed from conerete or rack.
Enkamat can be applied to give extra strength to the vegetation so that its capability to
‘resist erosion is increased. |t therefore provides a suitable alternative where solid
revetments would be considered excessive. The extra strength provided by the
reinforcement creates a homogeneous quality reducing the possibility of weak spots thus
preventing the onset of erosion, Enkamat is used as a protection against hydraulic loads in three main situations (Figure
3.7)
- the location to be protected is sufficiently above the normal waterlevel, so that a
dense vegetation can develop by itself. Hydraulic loadings occur here only under
exceptional conditions. In this case the Open Enkamat can be used. Depending
on the severity of the loading a 10 mm or 20 mm thick mat can be used.
- the location to be protected is situated lower down the slope and is more subject
to hydraulic forces. Plain vegetation may not develop to a full and dense cover.
Flat-back Enkamat is used which stimulates the growth of vegetation and gives
‘extra erosion resistance by filing the 20 mm mat with small stone chipping (2-6
mm).
When high hydraulic loadings are present the Pre-flled Enkamat can be used
which due to its weight is able to withstand high erosion forces;
- _ Insituations at or below the water line, where vegetation cannot be developed,
the Pre-filled Enkamat is used,
‘Open Enkamat
Figure 3.7 Enkamat protection on banks.
Enkamat can also be used as a gradual transition between a hard cover and a plain
vegetation (Figure 3.8)
Hard cover
Figure 3.8 Enkamat as gradual transition between a hard revetment and vegetation.
(Sambo RRR TERR RT
13 3.6 Protection of watercourses against hydraulic loadings
Watercourses are used to transport water for drainage or water supply. The currents
cause shear forces on the bottom and slopes of the waterway which can result in
erosion (Figure 3.9, page 16).
A distinction should be made between:
- watercourses permanently in use.
In this case a vegetation cover cannot be developed to withstand the currents. A
pre-filled Enkamat can provide enough resistance to withstand the erosive forces:
- watercourses that are subjected to occasional discharges only, such as storm
water run-off channels and spillways. When sufficient time is available for
vegetation cover to recover after a discharge period an Open Enkamat can be
used. When high currents are present and the vegetation is poor, the Flat-back
Enkamat, filled with stone chipping or the Pre-filed Enkamat may be used,
3.7 Protection of defences
When designing a revetment for a flood defence the following zones should be identified
(Figure 3.10)
= zone 4 permanently under water or, in the case of by sea infiuenced areas, within
the normal fidal range. This zone is subject to currents and wave attack;
- zone 2 between the mean (high) water level and the design water level. This
zone is attacked by high waves.
- zone 3 between the crest and the design water level. This zone is subject to
wave run-up;
- zone 4, the crest and landward slope. This zone is affected by wave overtopping
zore4 leone 3!_ zone? zone 1
Figure 3.10 _Enkamat on flood defences.
In zones 1 and 2 generally hard revetments are used such as rock, concrete or asphalt,
but when hydraulic loadings are low, for instance in the case of a polder dike, the Flat-
back Enkamat or the Pre-filled Enkamat can be a good solution.
In zone 3, which is normally protected by a vegetative cover, various types of Enkamat
‘may be used depending on the intensity and duration of the loading, etc. Normally the
Open Enkamat is adopted. Reference is made to section 3.5.
The rate of wave overtopping in zone 4 can vary from occasional spray to severe
overfiow of water, Normally a vegetative cover is used in this zone. The level of the
crest is often designed on the allowable rate of overtopping. The Open Enkamat can be
2.
14 used and when the vegetation cover is poor and the overtopping rates are extreme the
Flat-back Enkamat filled with stone chipping or the Pre-filled Enkamat is recommended
3.8 Special applications
In this section examples are given of special applications of Enkamat.
= The use of Enkamat as a reinforcement base for shoterete roadside ditches
(Figure 3.11);
= Pre-grown Enkamat as roof covering (Figure 3.12);
- the use of Enkamat as a rip layer on geomembranes to encourage the
establishment of, and hold vegetation on, banks of ponds (Fig 3.13),
- extensive trafficking (by foot or vehicle) can result in a severe deterioration of the
vegetation. This may lead to a non-optimum use. Examples are sports grounds,
such as soccer fields or golf courses, vehicular traffic of recreational banks,
amenity lands, walkways and green parking areas. Figure 3.9 Erosion of a waterway.
Figure 3.11 Enkamat as reinforced base for shotcrete ditches.
Semeeet eea
Envamat design Fanaa
16 Figure 3.12 Enkamat as roofcovering
Figure 3.13 Enkamat as griplayer for vegetation in a pond
Seniors CHAPTER 4
DESIGN APPROACH
Enkamat is used as a reinforcement mat for vegetation. Enkamat therefore cannot be
seen as a separate object, but it forms a part of an integrated system of soil, vegetation,
roots and mat. The design should not only pay attention to whether or not Enkamat is a
proper solution and which mat-type should be used, but also into the conditions to
achieve a proper growth of the vegetation.
Further the design should take into account the phase just after placing of the mat in
which the vegetation is absent and the phase in which the vegetation has been fully
developed
A distinction is made between wet (hydraulic) applications, which are the protection of
banks, water courses and flood defences, and dry applications, which are protection of
slopes and embankments, establishment of vegetation on steep slopes and soil
stabilisation on smooth substrates (see also chapter 3)
‘Two design methods can be applied
Simplified design method
For standard applications a ‘simplified design method! can be used. Using this method
an Enkamat-application can be designed rapidly without elaborate considerations.
The simplified design method is given in Chapter 5
Detailed design method
In this method the various design aspects are worked out in detail, This method is to be
used when the application is not covered by the simplified design method. Also
background information is provided for the interested ‘simplified method user’
The detailed design method is given in Chapter 6. CHAPTER 5
‘SIMPLIFIED DESIGN
5.1 General
The simplified design method is carried out step by step for specific applications.
Wet (hydraulic) applications are the protection banks of rivers, canals, ditches, brooks,
Dy applications are the protection of slopes and embankments against rain run-off or
Hi Wet applications
5.2.1 Step 1: is there a need for erosion protection
‘The toplayer of soil on the slope determines if erosion is to be expected. Coarse
materials do not erode at low water velocities, sandy and silty materials erode at
very low water velocities in the water course,
Use Figure 5.1 to determine if there is a need for erosion protection materials,
5.2.2 Step 2: determine the position and length of the Enkamat on the slope
10)
3 Enamat required
water velocity (m/s)
08}
93} No nlamat
uit
02
0.
0,001 oot ot 1 10 100 1.000
——> average particle size (mm)
tea sk an gravel stones
Figure 5.1 Critical flow in relation to mean grain size diameter and soil type.
Establish the high and low water level.
The high water level is estimated as:
- for slightly varying levels (non tidal), the normal high water level;
- for largely varying water levels (non tidal) the level that is exceeded a maximum
of three times a year;
- for tidal conditions the mean high water spring level.
Sates
Envarnat dean manual
19 wave run up
high water level
aon low water level
Figure 5.2 Enkamat as protection on banks.
The low water level is:
- for varying levels (non tidal), the normal low water level;
= for tidal conditions, the mean low water spring level.
The upper boundary of the mat is 0.5 m measured along the slope above the high
reference level to which the wave run-up is added, when applicable (Figure 5.2)
The wave run-up can be established using Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Wave run-up (m) depending on the significant wave height (H,) and the
slope angle (measured vertically above the high water level in m).
Ham) Slope
26" (12) 18 (12) 14 (14)
04 o4o 025, 020
02 080 055 0.40
03 120 oz | 060
The lower boundary of the mat is to be established as (Figure 5.2):
- when the mat is permanently loaded by a shear strength resulting from the water
fiow, the entire slope or bottom is to be protected;
- when the mat is attacked by wind waves the lower edge is to be caloulated as 1.5
to 2 times H,, measured vertically below the lowest reference water level, with a
minimum of 1 m measured along the slope and no navigation activities.
5.2.3 Step 3: choose the correct type
Figure 5.3 gives the boundary conditions for the use of the various types of Enkamat in
relation to the leading condition for the unvegetated situation. Figure 5.4 gives the
situation for fully vegetated condition. With the help of these graphs the type of Enkamat can be determined which is required to withstand the maximum water velocity and the
duration of it. Both cases, no or limited vegetation and fully developed vegetation, must
be checked. It is advised to apply a loading factor of 1.2 ... 1.5 to the design times or to
the velocities.
The unvegetated Pre-filled Enkamat can withstand continuous wave attack with a
maximum height of 0.2 to 0.3 m. Incidental higher waves are allowed. The filter function
should be checked. The Open Enkamat, when properly vegetated, can withstand a wave
attack of 0.3 m for a period of several days. Waves of 0.50 m can be withstood for a
period of 6 hours. Incidental wave attack up to 0.7 m will give no severe erosion
Situations in which high turbulence occurs, such as around bridge piers, narrowing of
the watercourse, irregular bottom, should be dealt with separately.
When placing the mat it is essential to achieve a close contact with the subsoil. This is
achieved by ballasting and/or pinning according to the following specifications:
- normal conditions: 1 pin per 3-4 m*
- severe conditions (high turbulence, etc): 1 pin per m?
= overlaps: 1 pin’m
ety (rs)
valitod
aration
rae water
NOVEGETATION
Figure 5.3. Enkamat type related to acting flow and no vegetation
ERE 6g
21 me mar. water velocty (nie)
time (ne)
PERMANENT VEGETATION.
Figure 5.4 Enkamat type related to acting flow and permanent vegetation.
5.3. Dry applications
5.3.1. Step +: establish the erosion resistance of the subsoil
Using Table 5.3 the situation can be derived for which it is necessary to protect the
subsoil (slope) against erosion in the unvegetated state.
Table 6.3: Necessity for erosion protection in unvegetated condition
(+ = no protection; - = protection needed)
4
Soll ype
Maximum rain | clay | sandy | clayey | sand gravel | stones
intensity (mmr) clay _| sand
<30 + + - + +
30-60 + : 7 : + +
60 z : 7 : +
22 5.3.2. Step 2: determine the "slope factor”
Depending on the gradient of the slope on which the Enkamat is to be placed, a so-
called "slope effect factor’ can be chosen which gives an indication of the erosion
intensity. This can be done with Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Slope factor.
Slope (VN) slope factor
1:3 and smaother +
125 2
12 3
148 4
"1 5
steeper than 111 | see section 65
5.3.3. Step 3: determine the "vegetation factor"
Germination of seeds depends amongst others on temperature and rainfall. The chance
that vegetation will develop in reasonable time to take over the erosion prevention role is
also dependent on the point of time of sowing. Therefore we advice to do it in the so
called "growing season’.
In Table 5.5 a rough indication is given of the required rainfall in the month of sowing for
an adequate growth related to the temperature. When the actual rainfall is less, a
vegetation factor of 3 is to be adopted and when rainfall is larger @ factor of 2
The climate zones which are used in Table 5.5 are indicated in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Climate zones.
Sanonvet
Eker 6g maT Table 5.5: Mean volume of rainfall (mm/month) required for a relatively rapid
germination related to the temperature and the climatic area,
Climate Temperature in °C
1-15 | 15-20 20-30 230
TROPICAL
humia 20 110
suibhumia 110 145
semi-arid 130 185
SUBTROPICAL summer rainfall
humia 8 90 110
sub-humid °0 110 130
‘somihurié 0 130 145
an 0 145 200
‘SUBTROPICAL winter rinfall
humiatoub-humia 30 90 110
semiarid 75 110 145
aid 75 130 200
EMPERATE
humidsub-humia 20 70 80 130
semiarid 1 90 110 165
5.3.4 Step 4: determine the tyoe of Enkamat to be used
For subsoils requiring protection, from Step 1 a protection factor is calculated as follows:
slope factor (Step 2) + vegetation factor (Step 3) = protection factor
‘When the protection factor < 5 then Open Enkamat with nominal 9 mm thickness can be
used, when the protection factor > 5 then Open Enkamat with nominal 18 mm thickness
is required.
When placing the mat a firm connection between the mat and the subsoil is required.
Also sufficient fertile soil to support the vegetation shall be placed in the matting CHAPTER 6
DETAILED DESIGN
6.1 General
In Table 6.1 a summary is given of the various design aspects.
Table 6.1. Design aspects for Enkamats, (The figures in the table refer to the
relevant sections in this Report)
Design aspects Hydraulic applications Dry applications
anise [water | detences | siopess steep | ear
| courses embankments | slopes _| stabilisation 4
Hyaraute | vetocty 21 [| 621 [ 621
teste Caves 622 | 622 | 22
waerleve | 623 | 623 | 629
fain runoff 63. 63 63.
geotechnical aspects 64 34
vegetation growth es | 65 65 65 65 65
ansportandinstataton | a6 | 66 66 6s 66 66
joints and connections o7 | a7 o7 67 67 67
environmental impact ee | 68 0 68 68 oo
urabity es | 69 69 69 69 69
maintenance er | er | 610 6.10 610 s10 |
6.2 Hydraulic loadings
62.1 Velocity
Water velocities cause shear stresses on slopes and bottoms of water courses.
‘The acting velocity or shear stress has to be compared with the critical velocity or critical
shear stress, The critical velocity or critical shear stress is the flow at which soil particles
start to move.
The acting velocity or shear stress has to be established by the designer. The methods
‘shown below are for the calculation of this velocity or stress for uniform uni-directional
flow.
The critical velocity or shear stress depends on the type of soil, the geometry, the
vegetative cover, etc.
Determining the mean flow velocity
In this section two methods are given to calculate the mean velocity of the flow in water
‘courses, which are the Chezy and the Manning method.
(eemtowmed enya SORA RR
25 The mean velocity can be determined using Chezy's formula’
V=CyRI
C = 18log 28
4
In which’
v mean velocity (m/s);
c = Chezy's coefficient for hydraulically rough surfaces (m'/s).
R rydraulic radius (m)
i lope of the energy line (-)
k, = absolute roughness (m)
The hydraulic radius is the quotient of the wetted surface in cross-section and the wetted
perimeter (Figure 6.1)
For example using Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1 Hydraulic radius for water courses.
R= wet surface in cross section ___4m?
wetted perimeter 22+2+22m
Another much used method to determine the mean velocity is the Strickler-Manning
formula’
V-K,.RoP
with:
Kq = Manning's roughness coefficient [ms]
It should be noted that Manning's roughness coefficient is not a constant but depends
on the hydraulic radius. An altemative form of the formula is:
yk
7”
In which:
n = retardance factor (sfm'*)
n 21K,
The relation between Chezy's coefficient and Manning's roughness coefficient is:
R
C= ~ Ky R®
Eee
Values for the roughness parameters
The absolute roughness k, for an unprotected non-vegetated waterway can be estimated
by taking the d., of the soil. The d,, is the particle size of the soil which is exceeded by
10 percent of the material on basis by weight (m). Chezy's coefficient and Manning's
roughness coefficient can be determined with the formulas given in the previous section,
In Delft Hydraulics, (1977) an absolute roughness k, = 0,014 m was measured for
unvegetated Flat-back Enkamat filled with chippings. In Muth (1983) a Manning's
roughness coefficient K,, of 50 m'*/s or an absolute roughness of k, = 0.010 m was
determined for the Pre-filed Enkamat
In Table 6.2 some values are given of the Retardance Factor n for several materials
(Nortier, 1988).
Table 6.2: Retardance Factors n
Material 2
brickwork 0012 -0.017
concrete 0.010-0.018
wood 0010-0015
watercourse man-made with émooth slopes 0.017 0.025
natural watercourse with bends and vegetation 0.035 - 0.050
natural watercourse straight and clean 025-0035 |
stone pitching 0.025 - 0.035
clean cut rock 0.025 - 0.035
rough irregular rock. 0.035 - 0.045
Sanne
TE mR
27 For mats in which the vegetation has fully developed, Manning's roughness coefficient
can be taken similar to that of a plain vegetation.
‘The Retardance Factor n for grassed waterways flatter than 1 in 10 can be determined
with the so called 'VR-method' (Figure 6.2) (Cox, 1942; Palmer,1945; Ree, 1949). This is
an iterative procedure.
03
S02
i Crass retarcanee categeries
= is! EE
& | i
$ 005 i
2
4
0.02
(0,005 0.01 on + 23
——-% flow parameter, Vin ms
Figure 6.2 Hydraulic roughness of grasses (Hewlett, 1987)
For slopes steeper than 1 in 10 it is recommended that the Retardance Factor is.
determined from Figure 6.3 (Hewlett, 1987)
0,030
rtardance cooffient,
——= waterway energy slope, $
Figure 6.3 Retardance coefficient for grassed slopes steeper than 1 : 10 (Hewlett,
1987).
‘Maximum allowable velocities
The critical velocity for unvegetated waterways depends on the grain size and cohesion
of the soil. In Figure 6.4 the relationship is given for the critical velocity and the mean grain size diameter d,, of several soil types. The graph is derived from the Hjulstroem
diagram (CUR, 1991).
oa
oz
Pater vee eis)
vor ont : 0 1) 1000
= average gate size mm)
ct send roel sense
pS =
Figure 6.4 Time at which no residual filing of the mat is left versus the flow.
In recent years several laboratories have carried out tests to establish the critical
velocities for Enkamats. During these tests the constructions were always loaded with a
uniform stationary flow. In reality however often a non-stationary flow ocours which gives
higher loadings. In practice it has been proven that Enkamat can resist significantly
higher flows for shorter periods than indicated by the laboratory results. A possible
explanation is that due to sedimentation of silt in the mat the mat is stuck to the silt
(Enka, 1983).
in Table 6.3 and Figure 6.5 the critical velocities are given as measured in the laboratory
for several Enkamat types.
Table 6.3: Critical velocities for Enkamats with no vegetation.
Enkamat type Ve (os) rence
(Open Enkamat 10 mem 055 Berkhout, 1978
(Open Enkamat 10 mm + chipping 2-6 mm & kg/m? + 170 Berkhout, 1986
(Open Enkamat 10 mm (sandwich)
(Open Enkamat 10 mm + chipping 2-6 mm, § kgle® 45) Berkhout, 1977
(Open Enkamat 10 mm + chipping 2-6 mm 10 kg/m® 1.20 Delft Hycraulics, 197
‘Open Enkamat 20 mm 055 Berkhout, 1979
Open Enkamat 20 mm + chipping 2-6 mi 15 kale? 470 Delt Hycraulics, 197
Flat-back Enkamat 20 rm 075 Berkhout, 1979
Flat-back Enkamat 20 mm + chipping 2-6 mm, 18 kgm? | 1.65 Brkhout, 1979
Prefilled Enkamat 2.50 Berkhout, 1986 In Figure 6.5 an indication is given, after which the critical stage of insufficient erosion
protection, due to washing out of fil in the mat, is reached related to the velocity.
Pretfiled Enkamat (peak)
Pro-filed Enkamat
PabbeckEnkamt (20 mm)
+ split
Flat-back Enkamat (10 mm)
+ split
Flat-back Enkamat (20 mm)
+sand
6 = Open Enkamat (20 mm)
sand
7 = Flat-back Enkamat (10 mm)
+ sand
8 = Open Enkamat (10 mm)
+ sand
rvs)
max, water veloaty
°10 100 7000 ~~ 10.000 ~—« T0000
+ time (hours)
Figure 65 Critical flow in relation to mean grain size diameter and soiltype
For vegetated Enkamats the critical velocity can be established using Figure 6.6,
depending on the curation of the loading (Hewlett, 1987)
7H
max, water velo (mvs)
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
> time te)
PERMANENT VEGETATION
Figure 6.6 Recommended limiting values for erosion of plain and reinforced grass
(Hewlett, 1987) All figures above refer to horizontal substrates. For sloping situations a slope factor has
to be used which takes into account the gravity force on soil grains acting
downwards along the slope.
Versipe = P%ertor f= 1-Stty
sin’
In which
t = slope factor,
a slope angle (dgr):
6 = angle of internal friction of the soil (dgr).
It is also advised to apply a safety factor of 1.5 for situations with none or poor
vegetation and 1.2 for situations with mature vegetation.
As can be concluded when comparing the unvegetated situation and the vegetated
situation Open Enkamats are preferred on vegetated slopes, whilst on unvegetated
slopes Flat-back Enkamat or the Pre-filled Enkamat can be used
Enkamats are connected underwater by overiaps in which the edges of the mats are laid
upstream over downstream in the direction of the current. It is however possible that for
a short period the current attacks from the opposite direction, causing an extra load onto
the joint with fear from flapping, It has been shown that a pre-filled Enkamat will flap at a
velocity of 0.6 mm/s (Berkhout, 1981). When higher velocities are to be expected careful
fixing of the overlap by pinning, additional bitumen or ballasting is required.
Critical shear stress
The critical shear stress at the bottom is the shear force which is related to the critical
flow velocity. With Enkamats in fact an apparent critical shear stress is present. When
this force is exceeded no yielding of the mat occurs but particles from the soil under the
mat are transported. Using Figure 6.7 the critical shear stress at the bottom can be
established for unprotected cohesionless soils on the basis of the mean grain size
diameter D,. (DIN 1961/2).
sand gravel enbbles
pale szo nam
Figure 6.7 Critical shear stress for cohesionless soils (DIN 1966112),
2.
(eemteweed Engg BSR RR
31 The relation between the flow velocity and shear stress can be described as:
hear stress (N/m’);
lensity of water (kg/m’);
= acceleration due to gravity (m/s*);
uurrent velocity (m/s):
Manning roughness coefficient (m'/s);
= hydraulic radius (m).
The above formula is worked out in Figure 6.8 and 6.9. With these Figures the shear
stress can be established for a given velocity and hycraulic radius for unvegetated
slopes. Figure 6.8 is for a Flat-back Enkamat filled with stone chipping and Figure 6.9
for a Pre-filled Enkamat. For vegetated slopes it is recommended that the Manning
Roughness coefficient is established as indicated above.
euiiiiaad
"TARE
“i
“A SS
Figure 6.8 Shear stress related to hydraulic radius and flow for Flat-back Enkamat
filled with chippings.
- o> 880)
rane
Figure 6.9 Shear stress related to hydraulic radius and flow for Pre-filled Enkamat
Santee 6.2.2 Waves
Wave attack
Waves are generated by tides, wind or ships. The wave conditions for wind-induced
waves can be established using hindcasting methods. In Figure 6.10 the approximate
conditions for a wave height H, = 0.3 m are given. H, is the significant wave height.
WAVE CONDITIONS TOO
HEAVY FOR CONSTANT.
ATTACK
20
waterdepth = 1m
15 |)
10
WAVE CONDITIONS
ACCEPTABLE
a Wind speed in ms
vaterdesthis »2m
100 11000 10.000
— tater im
Figure 6.10 Wind speed versus Fetch for waves with H, = 0.3 m and water depths of
1mand>2m.
The resistance against waves depends on the slope angle, type of soil and the duration
of wave attack. Enkamat can provide extra protection to vegetated slopes against wave
attack
From experience it can be derived that the Pre-filled Enkamat (unvegetated) can
withstand regular wave attack with a height of H, = 0.2 to 0.3 m
A vegetated grass slope can withstand wave attack as indicated below (Waterloopkundig
Laboratorium, 1996)
1. Waves less than 0.4 m.
- @ good turf is not seriously damaged within a period of 1 to 2 days. (The
turf itself remains intact)
- a turf in a bad condition is damaged quickly and holes up to 0.2 m- 0.4m
depth develop within 24 hrs.
- turf of acceptable quality as a sandy subsoil may be affected severely
within 24 hrs, Holes with a depth of 0.3 m may develop.
2. Waves between 0.4 m and 1.0 m,
. an acceptable or good turf is affected only slightly within a period of 1 day
or 2 days. The vegetation itself is damaged within 24 hrs.
- turf in 2 bad condition is affected severely. Within 36 hrs. holes with a
depth of several decimeters may occur. 3. Waves between 1.0 m and 1.4 m.
- an acceptable or good turf may yield within 15-20 hrs. under the condition
that the subsoil is sufficiently resistant against erosion and no large
damages are present.
- when large damages are present a turf of good or acceptable quality will
yield within several hours.
_ when the quality of the turf is bad deep scrusing takes place within
several hours
The rate of erosion is mainly determined by the quality of the turf and less by that of the
‘subsoil.
No information is available on the resistance of grassed slopes in combination with
Open Enkamat, Therefore it is assumed that these structures provide similar protection
to plain grass. However, the duration before erosion will occur, can be prolonged by
several days. Also the quality of the turf will be better.
At Loch Lomond (Scotland) at several locations grass-reinforced structures, including
Enkamat, have been tested. In the winter these locations were attacked by storms
causing the embankment to be flooded and loaded by waves (Alexander, 1982/1983).
The water level at the toe of the embankment was exceeded approximately 5 % per
annum, the predicted maximum wave height was 7.0 m.
The slope of the embankment was between 1 : 2 and 1 : 2.5. The subsoil consisted of
gravel and sand.
The following types were placed in Spring 1962
= Pre-filled Enkamat;
- _ Pre-filled Enkamat with a geotextile attached:
- Flat-back Enkamat (thick 18 mm)
The Flat-back Enkamat was filed with soil and seeded in May. No wash-off was found.
In spring 1983 two more Enkamat test slopes were constructed
- one with Flat-back Enkamat 18 mm, similar to the previous construction;
- one with Flat-back Enkamat 9 mm thick:
These mats were also filled with soil and seeded. The former sites were reseeded,
In Table 6.4 a summary is given of the findings.
The general conclusion was that the Enkamats performed satisfactorily
seemed Es eaRSaT BT RRA
34 Table 6.4: Summary of Loch Lomond test results with Enkamat.
Enkamat Ager winter 1982 After October storms 1983
Presfiled Enkamat | adequate performance | Test slope in good conaition. Grass on lower third of
the slope was abraded but roots are stil present
Pre-fled Enkamat } edaquate performance | Bulging occured on the slope resulting in signs of
with geotextile breaking up of the mat, This is probably caused by
‘wanepert of oll particles under the mat trom a higher
‘0 a lower point due to the relatively impermeable
geotextie
Flat-back Enkemat | edequate performance | Slope intact, die back of grass on lower 1.5 rm of the
38 mm (section 1) slope.
Flat-back Enkamat | not yet installed Slope intact, de back of grass on lower 1.5 m of the
418 mm (section 2) slope
Flatback Enkamat | not yet installed Slope intact, die back of grass on lower 1.5 m of the
gmm slope. Die back less than with 18 mm mats
Wave overtopping
The crest and landward slopes of defences are normally protected by a vegetation to
withstand wave overtopping. The crest level is often designed so that the vegetation can
withstand the overtopping
In this respect the duration and frequency of the overtopping should be considered. For
instance: overtopping at sea defences takes piace during storms with a relatively short
duration but with high overtopping peaks while for riverbanks overtopping is less but for
a longer period. Dutch guidelines for riverbanks take into account four aspects when
checking the resistance of a backslope of a bank against wave overtopping (Adel, 1994):
- the overtopping rate. Three overtopping rates are distinguished, which are: 0.1,
1.0 and 10 I/s/m. An overtopping rate of 0.1 l/sim can be compared with light
rainfall while 10 I/s/m is considered as severe overtopping, and walking along the
crest would be considered very dangerous.
- the slope angle. A steeper slope is more difficult to maintain and foot traffic may
cause damage to the vegetation;
- the soil type. Four types are distinguished (Table 6.5);
- the vegetation cover. Three categories are distinguished (Table 6.6).
A proper grass vegetation can withstand an overlapping rate of 10 lis/m without
problems. Rates up to 25 l/s/m may be withstood occasionally (Delft Hydraulics, 1996).
(eed FRE BRR A
35 Table 6.5: Soil types for wave overtopping estimates on riverbanks (Adel, 1994).
Soll type Liguid umit wi] Plasticity index | Sand contents | Soil
1 > 45% 20.73 (wk20) < 40% clay, very resistible
2 < 45% < 18% < 40% clay, goad to moderately
resistble
3 < 18% oF > 40% clay, bad resistibity
<073(Wi-20)
4 sand, clay content < 8%
Table 6.6: Classification of grass for overtopping estimates (Adel, 1994)
Grass covering Roat structure
stong moderate minor
50-70% 2 c c
70-85% A 8 c
85 - 100% A A 8
In Table 6.7 it is indicated which combination of soil type, vegetation category and slope
angle is permitted for a certain rate of overtopping,
Tabel 6.7a:
Type of grass,
A 8 c
0.1 usm Type of so “Type of sol Type of sol
ER ERE 1 [2 [3 1 j2[s |e
1 +[-[-[- + [+] + [+ fe
148 +|-J-]- +|-[- + [+ [ee
Slope [12 + [+e [- +[-[- +E iE
ange [125 + [e+] +[-[- «|e [e
13 + [ee [ + [+ |e «|e fe
Explanation
+ combination with acceptable litle erosion
combination with foo much erosion
sl is befter (more cohesive) than sol 4
Grass type Ais beter than grass type C (000)
(eemlemd aT BEA RT
36 Tabel 6.7b:
+ combination with acceptable litle eresion
= combination with too much erosion
soll 1 is better (more cohesive) than soll 4
Grass type A is better than grass type C (peor)
Type of grass
A 8
1.0 Usm Type of soil ‘Type of soil Type of soll
1 [2 |[s [4 2|3 2|s3
1 + [+ [+ ]- ne ctl
115 + [+ [+ ]- + coe
stope [12 + fe [+ ]- + |[- He
angie | 1:25 + [+ |e ]- + |- Ee
13 + fe [+ ]- + ele
Explanation:
+ combination with accepteble litle eresion
+ combination with too much eresion
‘soi 1 is better (more cohesive) than soll 4
Grass type A is better than grass type C (po0r)
Tabel 6.7¢
Type of grass
A 8
10.0 Vem Type of soll Type of soll Type of soil
12 {3 fa 2[s 2|3 |4
1A + [+ [- [- - [- - |.
118 + |-+ [- [- le
Slope [12 + {+ ]- |- : coal
ange | 1:25 + [+]. [- ee eH
13. + [+ fe [- ee - |.
Explanation
For sea defences the following data are available (Delft Hydraulics, 1980)
> crest and back slope grassed: maximum allowable overtopping discharge 5 \/s/m:
= Gfest paved and back slope grassed: maximum allowable overtopping discharge
20 sim.
- crest and back slope paved: maximum allowable overtopping discharge 50 /s/m.
Semtewwed amet eR RT
37 No data are available for the maximum allowable overtopping rate for Enkamats. The
following indications may however be used:
= the vegetation is given extra strength so the allowable overtopping rate may be
higher;
= for riverbanks: category B vegetation can become category A, category C can
become category 8;
= for seabanks Enkamat can be applied when the overtopping rate is such that a
slight increase in vegetation strength is required or when a plain vegetation is
poor or cannot be properly maintained
6.2.3 Water level
‘An important factor when designing with Enkamat is knowledge of the duration of the
hydraulic loading, since the choice of the Enkamat is largely determined by the fact
whether or not a dense vegetation cover can be established or maintained. This duration
depends largely on the water level
The following guidelines can be used:
- inthe area up to 0.3 m above the main water level vegetative growth is
considered absent or very poor;
- when the slope is regularly under water for more than a few days (two or three
times a year) or 2 few weeks in exceptional circumstances (once per year)
vegetation should there be regarded as poor,
- when waves are present vegetation cannot develop in the normal wave zone. The
upper limit of this zone (distance above the mean (high) water level) can be
established by calculating the wave run-up using the wave height for average
conditions;
- when waves are present vegetation will generally be poor in the lower part of the
zone between the mean water level and the design water Ievel. The length of this
area depends on the wave height, the frequency of occurrence of high water
levels and the slope angle.
AA simple formula for establishing the wave run-up is:
fq = 8H, tana r
In which:
Zy, = the wave run-up (m); in 98% of all cases.
Hy he significant wave height (m); (= 75% of highest possible wave)
a = the slope angle.
r reduction coefficient
Based on this research a reduction factor r = 1.15 H.°° may be applied to the
calculation of the wave run-up. The engineer should satify himself that the required
condition for application of r exists.
Furthermore a more sophisticated approach by Meer (1993) can be used.
6.3 Rain Run-off
Vegetation of siopes provides an excellent protection against erosion by run-off as can
be seen in Table 6.8. A 100 % covering is essential.
Seine
a
38 Table 6.8: __ Soll cover and water erosion (Agricultural Compendium, 1985)
Vegetation or cover Slope Run-off Soil loss
%) (%) (tha per year)
Grass 100 % cover 36 69 0.026
Grass 20 % cover 20 290 120
Bare soil 7 33.0 89.4
Enkamat has been used in numerous projects to control erosion of slopes and
embankments against rain run-off and has proved to be very satisfactory.
In this respect Enkamat reduces erosion when the slope is not vegetated and enhances
the growth of vegetation by retaining soil and seed. Enkamat provides extra strength to
a vegetated slope. It reduces the wearing effect of human and animal traffic on the slope
and avoids gully forming,
The effectiveness of Enkamat in controlling erosion by rain run-off has been tested by
Silsoe College (Morgan, 1984).
The following Enkamat types were tested:
= Open Enkamat thick 10 mm;
= Flatback Enkamat thick 9 mm and 18 mm;
= Pre-grown Enkamat
The tests were executed before any vegetation could establish itself in the Enkamat
(with the exception of the Pre-grown Enkamat)
The Enkamats were placed on a subsoil consisting of sandy loam (66.1% sand, 24.2%
silt and 9.7% clay) which is classified according to the ASDA system as highly erosive.
The Open Enkamat and Flat-back Enkamats were filled loosely with sandy loam.
The length of the test slope was 1.9 m, the slope angle 34° (1:1.5).
The test locations were subjected to a simulated rainfall of 35 mmy/hr for an one hour
duration. This was followed by two hours of no rain and then a repeat one-hour rainfall
of the same intensity. This to simulate the effects of rainfalling respectively on an initially
dry soil and on a soil close to saturation. Then the test slope was allowed to dry for 48
hours. This sequence was repeated 3 times.
‘A 35 mm/hr rain intensity for a period of 1 hr is similar to a storm with a return period of
1/100 years for eastern England. The storm energy of 494 Jim? is about half the
average annual energy of erosive rainfall.
For comparison a strip of the bare loamy sand and a strip of clay (4,4% sand, 31.7% silt
and 63.9% clay) were also tested
During the test the run-off and the eroded sediment were measured.
In Figure 6.11 the sediment yield as a percentage of that from the unprotected sandy
loam soil is given. As can be seen the Enkamats were successful in reducing the
erosion, This was achieved partly through a decrease in the volume of run-off and partly
through an increase in the resistance of the soil
ERR BR
39 dry soil wet sol
5 gee 5 eee
2 REE 2 888
Bs RB BEE Bee EEE
a
2
Abe 1A
Figure 6.11 Sediment yield as a percentage of that of unproctected sandy loam soil
(Morgan, 1984).
Further, the sediment yield was found to increase over time for the unprotected spots.
No increase was found for the Enkamat protected spots.
The Pre-grown Enkamat showed the best test results (appr. 0.5% of the sediment yield
‘compared to that of the unprotected soil). This shows that a vegetated slope provides
the best erosion protection,
The Open Enkamat and Flat-back Enkamat show a reduction in soil loss between 86%
and 75% of that of the unprotected soil. Although the Open Enkamat was found to
protect the soil better than the flat-back mats there were no obvious reasons to explain
this.
It should be noted that in these type of run-off tests thicker mats show initially more
erosion than thinner mats. This is because more loose fill material is available to be
eroded. At the end however more material remains in the mat.
6.4 Geotechnical aspects
6.4.1. Introduction
When Enkamat is applied on slopes gectechnical aspects are to be taken into account.
Enkamat itself can in general be placed under very steep and even vertical conditions,
but the sub-base itself may not be geotechnically sound
Although Enkamat contributes to the stability of slopes since it reduces erosion the main
rule is that the slope itself must be initially stable and not subject to large deformations.
Calculation of the slope stability can be done by various techniques, such as slip-circle
analyses, finite element deformation methods, etc.
When designing Enkamat, two situations have to be distinguished.
1. The slope is relatively fiat: the Enkamat can be placed on the slope without fear
of sliding off. The Enkamat is not subject to tensile forces which may damage the
mat.
Sonowet
Entanat design mana
40 This situation generally is present in case of earth substrates if the slope is not
steeper than:
41:4 for dry slopes and embankments;
5 for underwater applications.
This implies that Enkamat can be used on nearly every normal earth structure.
2. The slope is relatively steep. The Enkamat is subjected to tensile forces. In that
case the Reinforced Enkamat is to be used. The tensile force acting on the mat
has to be calculated and the thickness of the mat chosen.
This may be the case when Enkamat is placed on a smooth surface and covered
with scil for instance as a protection layer for ponds or when the Enkamat is
placed on very steep slopes to enhance growth of vegetation
6.4.2. Soil stabilisation on geomembranes
A Reinforced Enkamat is placed on a smooth surface, for instance a geomembrane, and
covered with a soil layer.
The following 2 boundary conditions have to be analysed:
1. the soil layer slides off over the Enkamat;
2, the Enkamat and soil layer together slides off over the geomembrane (tensile
force calcualtion).
1. Sliding of cover layer
Reinforced Enkamat
The friction component along the Enkamat must be greater than the component of the
weight acting upon it or else the soil layer can slide off (Figure 6.12).
The weight of the cover layer is:
G=pedk
in which: p= density of the soil (kg/m’),
@ = acceleration due to gravity (m/s?)
d= thickness of soil cover (m):
L_ = length of slope;
9.
Seton Estar ean maT
4 When extra loading of the cover layer is envisaged, e.g. snow, this should also be taken
into account.
‘The friction W along the Enkamat is:
W =f cosB
In which:
= tano if @ <6, else tané;
weight of cover layer
angle of internal friction of the soil;
coefficient of friction between Enkamat and scil;
slope angle (°)
To prevent sliding:
G sin < f G cosB
that is:
tanB
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