15_2019 DIPARTIMENTO DI DISCIPLINE UMANISTICHE, SOCIALI E DELLE IMPRESE CULTURALI (DUSIC) Unità di Lingue LA TORRE DI BABELE. RIVISTA DI LETTERATURA E LINGUISTICA Direttore Maria Candida Ghidini Direttore responsabile Rinaldo Rinaldi Redazione Daniele Corradi e MUP Editore Testi a cura di Michela Canepari e Maria Candida Ghidini Comitato scientifico (nazionale e internazionale) Stefano Arduini (Link Campus University, Roma), Rimantas Balsys (Klaipėdos Universitetas - LT), Maria Bertini (Accademia delle Scienze, Torino), Anna Bonola (Università Cattolica, Milano), Cesáreo Calvo Rigual (Universidad de Valencia - ES), Jesús Cañas (Universidad de Extremadura - ES), Yves Chemla (Université de Paris-Descartes - FR), Lilla Maria Crisafulli (Università di Bologna), Rocco Coronato (Università di Padova), Jeffrey N. Cox (University of Colorado, Boulder - U.S.A.), Giorgio De Marchis (Università di Roma Tre), Laura Dolfi (a.c. Real Academia Española), Camillo Faversani (Université de Paris VIII, Saint Denis - FR), Fulvio Ferrari (Università di Trento), Maria Chiara Gnocchi (Università di Bologna), Giovanni Gobber (Università Cattolica, Milano), José J. Gómez Asencio (Universidad de Salamanca - ES), Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni (Institut Universitaire de France, Paris - FR), Evgenija Viktorovna Ivanova (Institut Gor'kij Mirovoj Literatury Akademii Nauk, Mosca - RU), Dušan Ivanić (Università di Belgrado - RS), Persida Lazarević (Università di Chieti, Pescara), Isabel Cadete Novais (Direzione del Centro de Estudos Regianos di Vila do Conde - PT), José Carlos Rovira (Universidad de Alicante - ES), Giovanni Sampaolo (Università di Roma Tre), Gordon Tucker (University of Cardiff - GB), Michela Venditti (Università di Napoli - L’Orientale). Comitato scientifico interno (referenti) Gioia Angeletti (Letteratura inglese e letterature anglofone), Stefano Beretta (Letteratura e lingua tedesca), Nicoletta Cabassi (Letteratura e lingua serbo-croata e lingua russa), Michela Canepari (Lingua inglese), Maria Candida Ghidini (Letteratura russa), Elisabetta Longhi (Lingua tedesca), Enrico Martines (Letteratura e lingua portoghese e lusobrasiliana), Guido Michelini (Linguistica e letteratura e lingua lituana), Olga Perotti (Letteratura spagnola e ispanoamericana), Alba Pessini (Letteratura francese), Elena Pessini (Letterature francofone), Diego Saglia (Letterature comparate), Simonetta Valenti (Lingua francese), María Valero Gisbert (Lingua spagnola). Direttori de “La Torre di Babele” Giovanna Silvani: nn. 1 (2003), 2 (2004), 3 (2005), 4 (2006), 5 (2007-2008); Laura Dolfi: nn. 6 (2009-2010), 7 (2011), 8 (2012), 9 (2013), 10 (2014), 11 (2015), 12 (2016), 13 (2017); Maria Candida Ghidini: n. 14 (2018), n. 15 (2019). ISSN 1724-3114. Autorizzazione del tribunale n. 1/2005 del 7/2/2005 © 2019 Monte Università Parma Editore Design Simone Pellicelli MUP Editore è una impresa strumentale della WWW.MUPEDITORE.IT 15_2019 TUTTE LE COSE CHE SI CONOSCONO HANNO NUMERO SOMMARIO TUTTE LE COSE CHE SI CONOSCONO HANNO NUMERO Gualtiero Rota Numerologia ed esegesi tra furor e ‘ irrisio mathematica’ Michela Canepari Il valore dei numeri fra esoterismo e matematica: questioni di intertestualità e intersemioticità Micòl Beseghi Pluralità linguistica e traduzione audiovisiva: il caso di Call Me by Your Name Virginia Vecchiato From Pythagoras to Daniel Tammet: the Thin Red Line between Synesthesia and Intersemiotic Translation Fabiola Notari Mastering Numbers in Legal Discourse: Pragmatic Perspectives and Translation Issues Nataša Raschi Quelle langue parlent les mathematiques? Une analyse comparative des mémoires de Diderot et D’Alembert sur l’acoustique Elisabetta Longhi Le infinite parentesi del tedesco Giorgia Delvecchio Trilce, di César Vallejo: una poetica in bilico tra pitagorismo e simbolismo binario Oleksandra Rekut-Liberatore Geometria del paesaggio e aritmetica degli elementi nei Cavalli bianchi di Aldo Palazzeschi Appendice Abstracts Gli autori 9 31 55 77 95 129 163 189 207 230 237 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES - Fabiola Notari There is no doubt that legal language is decidedly peculiar and often hard to understand, especially from the perspective of the lay public […] Anyone who has ever seen a legal document realizes that it differs dramatically from everyday speech1. Introduction L egal language, as other specialized discourses, exhibits numerous distinguishing features which are used consistently in different legal genres and characterize the communication among the members of this professional community, and between these members and the society as a whole. These linguistic features are certainly rooted in general language, however they have become predictable in terms of textual occurrences, since they appear to be hyper-employed2 in particular contexts of communication 1 Tiersma, Legal Language, p. 2. According to Gotti: «specialized discourse does not appear to differ from general language for the use of special linguistic rules absent from general language but for its quantitatively greater and pragmatically more specific use of these elements». Gotti, Investigating Specialized Discourse, pp. 15-16. 2 95 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 to meet specific stylistic and pragmatic needs. In this regard legal genres possess at various degrees highly codified traits with reference to lexical, morphosyntactic and textual resources, together with a widespread use of standardized and formulaic expressions. From this perspective, the purpose of this essay is to give an account of the particular usage of numbers in the legal sphere, exploring their semantic, pragmatic and stylistic function, with the ultimate purpose of demonstrating that their usage can be deemed, among other characteristics, a typical feature of legal discourse. In this regard, it should be highlighted that although legal discourse has been widely analyzed, the primary focus has remained on linguistic aspects, without devoting particular attention to the specific use of numbers in this field. As a matter of fact, it is generally acknowledged that «law would not exist without language»3, as legal rules, regulations and law principles are necessarily coded in language. In this sense law is naturally tied to the linguistic code and performs a fundamental function in shaping our world through the legal system. This intimate connection might be able to explain the reason why language analysis dominates in this field, since a better understanding of this communication is certainly bound to improve legal drafting, enhancing readability of legal documents. This particular objective pertains to legal linguistics, which examines the development, characteristics and usage of legal language, but also to legal translation which attempts to provide new and flexible methodological approaches able to overcome inherent issues related to this activity, in particular the need to achieve ‘legal equivalence’4, that is equivalence of legal effects, between source and target text. 3 Danet, Language in the Legal Process, p. 448. Beaupré coined the expression ‘legal equivalence’ to explain that legal translation needs to meet two types of equivalence. The first one concerns the communicative level and the need to achieve identity of meaning, while the second one refers to the need to achieve the same legal effects produced by the source text in the source culture. See Beaupré, Interpreting Bilingual Legislation, p. 179. 4 96 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES However, without denying the importance of language investigation in this field, this essay aims at demonstrating that law has a long-standing relation with numbers as well, dating back at least to the first written laws and codes5. Since then numbers have performed a paramount function in the various legal systems, as they have generally been employed to organize and systematize legal texts within the whole legal framework. In this regard the Italian Civil Code can be taken as a model to examine to what extent numbers have always been used to create highly structured systems of rules characterized by an absolute internal coherence. In particular, this code is composed by 2969 articles divided into six Books6, each of them further subdivided into numbered Titles, Chapters and Sections using Roman numerals. Each Book deals with a particular subject and collects legal rules under a dogmatic subject title (e.g., ‘Obligation’, ‘Family’, ‘Property Law’) which reflects the particular theoretical framework applied by the Italian legal system to classify legal concepts and law principles. Within the same Book legal rules are further subdivided according to the type of legal effects produced by the provisions contained therein, for example Book Four (Of Obligations), differentiates between contractual and non-contractual obligations7, which are in turn sub- 5 From the late seventeenth century the idea of codification captured the European continent with the aim to select the most important provisions from an incalculable variety of particular norms called ius commune, that is a common law consisting of Roman, canon, and feudal law which was taught in the law schools of Italy, France, Spain, Germany, and other continental European countries and which is now considered as the fundamental basis of the developments of civil law systems. The legal system based on ius commune was chaotic and sometimes contradictory: many local laws were in force but Roman law remained applicable in subsidio. The idea of codification was influenced by the Enlightenment, which attempted to bring order to disorder drawing up a body of rules, carefully systematized in a law code. 6 Book one (Of Persons and Family), Book Two (of Successions), Book Three (Of the Rights of Property), Book Four (Of Obligations), Book Five (Of the Rights of Labor), Book Six (Of the Protection of Rights). 7 Book Four is divided into nine Titles (Of Obligations in General, Of Contracts in General, Of Specific Contracts, Of Unilateral Promises, Of Credit Instruments, Of Voluntary Management of the Affairs of Another, Of Payment of What is not Due, Of Unjust Enrichment, Of Wrongful Acts). 97 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 divided into further categories (e.g. ‘Sales’ and ‘Unjust enrichment’) using numbered chapters and sections. In this case, through the usage of numbers, the structure of legal texts can be carefully elaborated and hierarchically organized, since fundamental principles and general rules are always presented before exceptions or secondary items. Moreover, an in-depth analysis of legal texts can also demonstrate that numbers have a highly denotative force, for instance when they are employed to identify single provisions by just providing the number of the article under consideration8, or when they are used in authoritative and binding documents – above all in judicial decisions, legislative texts and treaties – to indicate the serial number9 assigned by the authority issuing the document, which forms part of the full title. This serial number can assume crucial importance when legal texts are referred to only reporting this element, since the official title is often long and complicated10. Therefore, this denotative function implies that numbers can also be used in legal discourse to create explicit cross-references among different legal texts (‘intertextual-references’) or within the same legal document (‘intratextual-references’) through the usage of legal citations, that is the practice of referring to other documents just providing the reference number of the document under consideration. This research will focus especially on this last characteristic, which appears to be of particular interest for legal linguistics and legal translation, in the belief that the analysis of the usage of explicit cross-references can introduce a new point of departure for a critical thought about the very nature of legal 8 e.g., «This judgement will become final in the circumstances set out in Article 44 § 2 of the Convention». See: CASE OF PROVENZANO v. ITALY App. No(s).55080/13, <https://hudoc. echr.coe.int/eng/#{“itemid”:[“001-187186”]}>. 9 e.g. REGULATION (EU) 2016/679 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC. 10 See the previous note, the serial number 95/46/EC is used to refer to ‘General Data Protection Regulation’ without repeating the full title of the regulation. 98 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES discourse, which in turn will be used to demonstrate that in this particular field the usage of numbers has its own characteristics and responds to specific communicative needs which are peculiar to legal discourse. In this regard, the purpose of this essay is to highlight that the usage of numbers carries significant implications with respect to the semantic level, as these explicit cross-references play a crucial role in the creation of the overall meaning of the text. The recognition of this semantic function will then stimulate further and broader reflections about the inherent nature of legal discourse with regard to the issue of intertextuality. However, this research also aims at pointing out that it would be a mistake to assume that intertextuality operates only through explicit cross-references. The systemic character of the law implies that intertextuality is a constant characteristic, since the meaning of a text is always the result of a network of textual relations among different texts pertaining to legal discourse. The recognition of the existence of these implicit cross-references will provide the theoretical basis to acknowledge, a contrario, the fundamental role performed by numbers when used in legal citations to enhance clarity and precision, making explicit intertextual and intratextual relationships which otherwise would remain hidden. Furthermore, the linguistic analysis of these explicit cross-references will demonstrate that the study of these legal citations may become an interesting domain for legal linguistics, as the use of numbers is often combined with abbreviations – normally in the shape of initialisms11 – and fixed formulaic expressions which, through constant repetition, have become peculiar to particular genres. In particular, these abbreviations and fixed expressions may pose specific problems in relation to intelligibility, although they are certainly used to facilitate intertextual references, shortening the 11 These abbreviations are usually used to refer to international organizations, e.g. UN (United Nations), EU (European Union), ECHR (European Court of Human Rights) etc. 99 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 length of the sentences, making the overall structure of the sentence easier to read. Issues concerning intelligibility may also arise with regard to the difficulty to identify the pragmatic function performed by these legal citations and the type of relation that they establish on a case by case basis among the different texts involved in the creation of the overall meaning. From that standpoint the study of these legal citations may become crucial for the legal translator, required to achieve legal equivalence by using target language expressions capable of maintaining both the same pragmatic function of the source text and its legal flavor. Finally, the last part of this essay will explore the previously mentioned topic – related to the usage of numbers as a means to organize legal documents – by focusing on the various attempts made to reform the language of the law with reference to the Plain Language Movement, which favors the use of numbered headings, lists and paragraphs to organize legal documents in order to improve intelligibility and readability of legal texts. 1. The systemic character of the Law: intertextuality and implicit cross-references As already outlined, intertextuality represents a major issue when dealing with legal discourse, as it mirrors the systemic character of the law, where each element necessarily enters in a dialectic relation with other texts, rules and principles pertaining to the whole legal framework. The existence of these dialectic relations is of primary importance and cannot be ignored, since these relations take part in the creation of the overall meaning of the text and operate at the semantic level: Two verbal works, two utterances, in juxtaposition enter into a particular kind of semantic relation, which we call dialogical. Dialogical relations are (semantic) relations between all the utterances within verbal communication […] In order to become dialogical […] relations must achieve material existence, […] they must enter into another sphere of being: become discourse, 100 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES that is utterance, and receive an author, whose position is in turn expressed by the utterance12. These dialogical relations among single elements within legal discourse can be explicit – if the reference is expressly mentioned – or remain implicit, in which case the interpreter must inevitably possess an extensive knowledge of the subject in order to correctly define the meaning of the text. As far as the pervasiveness of implicit cross-references is concerned, it should be noted that in legal discourse intertextuality is just another word for interpretation, since the meaning of legal texts is always to be established by reference to the entire legal framework13. In this regard, implicit cross-references become apparent whenever a legal document requires interpretation, which in the legal practice means basically always. According to Edward Caldwell14, legal interpretation during the judicial process does not imply that each element which eventually leads to the final decision is clearly expressed in a statute, in a contract or in any other legal document submitted to the court’s attention. Most of the times what matters is the interpretative activity of the jurists: There’s always the problem that at the end of the day there’s a system of courts and judges who interpret what the draftsman has done. It is very difficult to box the judge firmly into a corner from which he cannot escape […] 12 Todorov, Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle, pp. 60-61. The concept of intertextuality implies that texts, whether literary or non-literary, lack any kind of independent meaning. Meaning is something which is created through a network of textual relations; for this reason, it could be said that every text acquires meaning in relation to other texts. From this perspective, it is the act of reading rather than the act of writing which is instrumental in creating the text’s meaning. The meaning of the text and its interpretation are thus seen to be located in the reader’s understanding rather than in the author’s intention, as Barthes states at the conclusion of The Death of the Author: «the birth of the reader must be at cost of the death of the Author». Barthes, The Death of the Author, p. 148. 14 British lawyer and senior parliamentary counsel. 13 101 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 you’ve got to rely on the courts getting the message and deducing from what you have said or it may be often from what you haven’t said, what implications they are to draw in such and such a case15. Sometimes judges rely on implied principles and values which belong to the legal system as a whole and whose formulation, interestingly to note, is often left implicit through the use of vague and flexible language16, which according to Tiersma: «enables the law to deal with novel situations that are certain to arise in the future, as well as changing norms and standards»17. These implied terms act as implicit cross-references, since they maintain their legal effects even though not expressly mentioned: Implied terms are those that courts deem to be part of the contract even though the parties did not expressly agree to them. Implied terms are sometimes used to ‘fill gaps’ that parties have left in their contracts, such as when parties leave out the time of performance and courts read in a reasonable time term. Implied terms can also refer to terms that limit the application of existing terms, the most notable example being the doctrine of good faith. Interpretation and implied terms are closely related concepts […] if 15 Edward Caldwell, reported in Bhatia, An investigation into Formal and Functional Characteristics of Qualifications…, p. 25. 16 Vague and flexible language is extremely frequent in constitutions, where it is very common to find expressions like ‘due process’, ‘freedom of speech’ and the most common ‘beyond a reasonable doubt’, or in contracts, which exhibit a great variety of expressions like ‘force majeure’, ‘reasonable efforts’, ‘reasonable care’, ‘best efforts’. These principles are deliberately expressed through vague language, meaning that they are meant to be interpreted on a case-by-case basis, since it would be impossible to articulate their content in advance, establishing any potential circumstance which may fall within their field of application, as what is reasonable in a particular situation may not be in another, not to mention that these standards may change over time – take for example the standard of due diligence referred to medical treatments. Due to their flexible formulation, these principles can adapt to different situations and endure over time, guiding the entire society towards the standard of behavior posed by these general provisions. 17 Tiersma, Legal Language, p. 80. 102 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES a contract contains a ‘best efforts’ clause’, determining what that clause requires is a question of interpretation, although the specific content a court reads into such a vague term could easily be viewed as an act of implication. On the other hand, if the contract contains no such clause, a court may have to decide whether to imply a best efforts obligation, and if it does, it has to determine the content of that obligation, which may involve considerations similar to those for interpreting ab express best efforts clause18. Consequently, the concept of intertextuality in the shape of implicit cross-references lies at the very heart of many judgements passed – despite their differences – both in Civil and Common law countries, where judges, in order to reach ‘the right decision’, examine alternative perspectives, which may depart from the literal interpretation of the law (i.e. ‘the letter of the law’) in favor of a decision which is more coherent with the legal system as a whole (i.e. ‘the spirit of the law’), thus reproducing the ancient opposition between lex and ius elaborated by the Romans19. The issue of intertextuality has been discussed so far from a theoretical standpoint; it might be useful to consider, however, by providing a concrete example, how and to what extent intertextuality can influence the interpretation and the production of legal effects in legal discourse before moving to the next paragraph, which will deal specifically with the usage of numbers to create explicit cross-references. In particular, Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice can be taken as a model to discuss the issue of intertextuality and implicit cross-references20, as this play reproduces on stage the long-standing 18 Cohen, Interpretation and Implied Terms in Contract Law, in Encyclopedia of Law and Economics, vol. VI, p. 125. 19 According to which a judicial decision, rather than promoting an interpretation secundum litteram (lex), may comply with more general law principles which are unavoidable and take part in shaping, explicitly or implicitly, the legal system as a whole in order to promote ‘justice’ (jus). 20 In this respect, this research applies Ian Ward’s fascinating vision with regard to the usefulness of explaining certain legal concepts by means of literature. In particular, according to Ian Ward – professor of law at Newcastle University Law School and promoter of the ‘law and literal movement’ –, from 103 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 opposition between literal and systematic interpretation of the law with respect to the concept of ‘justice’21. In act I, scene iii the parties enter into an agreement, according to which Shylock would cut out a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body in case the latter fails to repay the loan on time. In the scene of the trial ensued from the breach of the contract, Shylock insists on having the terms agreed on in the bond duly enforced: Shylock Portia Shylock Portia Shylock Portia Shylock So says the bond, doth it not, noble judge? Nearest his heart! those are the very words. It is so. Are there balance here to weigh the flesh? I have them ready. Have by some surgeon, Shylock, on your charge, To stop his wounds, lest he do bleed to death. Is it so nominated in the bond? It is not so express’d: but what of that? ‘Twere good you do so much for charity. I cannot find it; ‘tis not in the bond22. As Portia suggests, Shylock’s reasoning is proven to be fallacious also from the level of literal interpretation, which is actually the one asked by Shylock: an educational point of view «the introduction of literature into the law school classroom is a positive and popular measure […]. Law need not to be anything like as complex, inaccessible or downright dull as it often seems. Its study might be enjoyable […]. Literature can better educate lawyers, and indeed, non-lawyers precisely because it is fresh and enjoyable, whilst at the same time it is capable of broadening the learning experience». Ward, Law and Literature, p. ix. 21 The Merchant of Venice has always been considered, together with Measure for Measure, one of Shakespeare’s ‘legal plays’, and understood in the sense that formal laws may produce unjust results unless tempered with equity. In this regard, «the play dramatizes the struggle in Shakespeare’s England for supremacy between common law courts and the equitable Court of Chanchery». Kornstein, Kill All the Lawyers? Shakespeare’s Legal Appeal, p. 66. 22 Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, 4.1.250-259. 104 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES blood is not expressed in the penalty clause and according to the contract Shylock must cut out precisely one pound of flesh, no more, no less and without shedding any of Antonio’s blood: Portia Therefore prepare thee to cut off the flesh. Shed thou no blood, nor cut thou less nor more But just a pound of flesh: if thou takt’st more Or less than a just pound, be it but so much As makes it light or heavy in the substance Or the division of the twentieth part Of one poor scruple, nay, if the scale do turn But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate23. Portia’s hyper-technical and even more literal interpretation than Shylock’s represents her last means to promote justice, after the failed attempt to touch Shylock’s conscience through her moving ‘quality of mercy’ speech (4.1.180201) where she expresses an equitable concept of law: But mercy is above this sceptered sway, It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, It is an attribute to God himself, And earthly power doth then show likest God’s When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, Though justice be thy plea, consider this: That in the course of justice none of us Should see salvation24. 23 24 Ibidem, 4.1.320-328. Ibidem, 4.1.189-196. 105 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 Between the lines it is also possible to read the ratio decidendi of the final ruling against Shylock, who faces the impossibility to have his pound of flesh. On one hand, as acknowledged by Antonio, the entire reliability of commercial contracts in Venice could suffer from a ruling in his favor: Antonio The duke cannot deny the course of law: For the commodity that strangers have With us in Venice, if it be denied, Will much impeach the justice of his state; Since that the trade and profit of the city Consisteth of all nations25. However, as Bassanio suggests, Shylock’s rigid approach to law is wrong. For this reason, he asks Portia to make an exception, stating that it would certainly be ‘wrong’ not to enforce the contract, though only ‘a little wrong’ in order to achieve justice: Bassanio And I beseech you Wrest once the law to your authority, To do a great right, do a little wrong, And curb cruel devil of his will26. In the same way, even if Shylock’s reasoning is finally beaten by the ‘specific performance’ counterstatement ‘flesh-but-no-blood’, Portia’s judgement can be understood in the light of the principle of mercy, closely related to the concept of ‘natural law’27, according to which the validity of positive law28 depends 25 Ibidem, 3.3.26-31. Ibidem, 4.1.210-213. 27 Ius naturale, i.e. the universal law which belongs to nature and exists independently of the positive law in a given society. 28 Ius positum, i.e. human-made laws, created and enforced within a specific community. 26 106 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES on its conformity to a ‘higher’ law, belonging to nature and expressing absolute values of justice29. In this sense, the meaning of this judgement has often been understood in terms of common sense and popular wisdom. However, on closer inspection, the reasoning behind this ruling is not that far from many judgment issues by Civil or Common law courts in our time. In particular, according to general law principles contained in law codes (in Civil law countries) and in judicial precedents (in Common law countries), a contract cannot be contrary to ‘good morals’ or ‘public order’30; if this happens, it is declared null and void ab initio in order to protect superior public interests. Therefore, from a contemporary perspective, the contract between Shylock and Antonio was unenforceable, because it had no legal effects from the beginning, since the public order clause produces legal effects even if not mentioned by the parties, prevailing over the freedom of contract and implementing, as an implicit cross-reference, the contract signed by the parties. 2. The usage of numbers as explicit cross-references in European directives and judicial decisions of the European Court of Human Rights Accuracy and precision are considered fundamental characteristics of legal language. This essentially results from the requirement for legal protection and legal certainty. To avoid the possibility of arbitrariness, legal rules should be formulated without ambiguity31. 29 In this regard the concept of mercy is closely related to the idea of justice as descending from ‘natural law’, which is also expressed by the Latin brocard: ius quia iustum non ius quia iussum, meaning that the law (ius) should always aim at justice (iustum) and not follow what is merely established by positive law (iussum) if these laws appear to be in contrast with universal values. For further details on this concept, see Pizzorni, Il diritto naturale dalle origini a S. Tommaso d’Aquino, pp. 586-619. 30 Notice the use of flexible and general language. 31 Mattila, Comparative Legal Linguistics, p. 65. 107 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 In view of the reflections made in the previous paragraph in relation to implicit cross-references, it is quite obvious why precision and explicitness are of fundamental importance in the field of legal language in order to avoid ambiguities, which in this sphere could lead to interpretation and thus undermine legal certainty32. In this regard, lawyers and legislative drafters often strive to be as accurate as possible, formulating lengthy and complex sentences which can incorporate a great amount of conditions and exceptions. Moreover, another way to achieve a high standard of precision at the semantic level can be identified in the tendency to make an extensive use of technical terms, that is terms which have acquired a fixed meaning in the legal sphere. Gotti defines this characteristic in terms of ‘monoreferentiality’33, which describes the particular phenomenon according to which in a specific context certain words and phrases have become, through constant repetition, highly denotative in relation to a particular referent. For this reason, technical words do not appear to be easily replaceable by a synonym, but only by a definition or paraphrase, thus giving rise to other characteristics pertaining to legal language, in particular lexical repetition34, verbosity35 and 32 The principle according to which a legal system should be transparent and predictable, thus preventing arbitrary law enforcement. 33 In particular, according to Gotti: «The most widely-investigated distinctive feature of specialized lexis, as compared to general language is monoreferentiality. The term ‘monoreferentiality’ is not used here to indicate that each term has only one referent, as words generally have several referents, but to signal that in a given context only one meaning is allowed. Indeed, term and concept are related by a fixed ‘defining agreement’ whereby the term cannot be suitably substituted by a synonym but only by its definition or paraphrase». Gotti, Investigating Specialized Discourse, p. 256. 34 «The accuracy of legal language also presupposes that a noun in a sentence is not replaced by a pronoun if that can cause ambiguity as to the subject or object of the sentence. In the past lawyers have been highly cautious in this respect: they not only always repeated key substantives but added a precision-word, above all said, in front of substantives. This tradition goes back to medieval times». Mattila, Comparative Legal Linguistics, p. 88. 35 This feature is extremely apparent when considering the use of the so called ‘binominals and trinominals’ in the legal language, for example: null and void, goods and chattels, fit and proper, well and sufficiently, agreed and declared. These expressions are also defined as ‘worthless doubling’ by Mellinkoff. For an in-depth analysis see: Mellinkoff, The Language of the Law, pp. 349-363. 108 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES archaic language36. In this respect, this essay intends to contribute to this analysis by demonstrating that the need for absolute denotative precision is also responsible for the usage of numbers in legal discourse, which are employed to systematize legal rules and provisions within a coherent legal framework, with the ultimate purpose of enhancing intelligibility by creating explicit cross-references among different legal texts (‘intertextual references’) or within the same document (‘intratextual references’)37. Despite the apparent redundancy in remarking that numbers are indeed part of legal discourse – for we are certainly accustomed to seeing numbers being employed in the definition of articles, sections, subsections or contract clauses –, it is in any case important to point out that we may not be fully aware of the specific pragmatic needs fulfilled by numbers when they are employed to create explicit cross-references among different legal texts and provisions. Again, in order to understand to what extent explicit cross-references made through the usage of numbers fulfil the need for absolute precision in this field, it is necessary to take a step backward and consider the very nature of legal discourse. In particular, the concept of intertextuality in its own does not seem be sufficient to describe the systemic character of the law, since it does not exclude the risk of antinomy, i.e. the real or apparent mutual incompatibility among single provisions. The key-word to approach this matter is ‘order’, and the timeless validity of Aristotle’s philosophical work Politics proves to be paramount in addressing this topic. In this regard, according to Aristotle: «law is order, and good law is good order»38. This conception of law has certainly a great deal of implications; for the purpose of this research, 36 «Fear that new terms may lead to ambiguity favours the permanence of traditional traits, which are preserved even when they disappear from general language. Old formulae are preferred to newly-coined words because of their century-old history and highly codified, universally accepted interpretations. Conservatism of this type accounts for the custom of opening the preface to many English legal texts with the conjunction whereas». Gotti, Analyzing Specialized Discourse, p. 32. 37 Again, the concept of intertextuality proves to be of peculiar importance in addressing the issue of explicit cross-references. In this regard, these references clearly imply the concept of intertextuality and the need to express these relations in order to avoid ambiguities in legal discourse. 38 Everson, The Politics, p. 105. 109 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 however, it is important to emphasize that in Aristotle’s view ‘law’ and ‘order’ are necessarily linked concepts, while there is an implied and underlying opposition between order and disorder, the latter considered as anarchy and chaos. From this perspective, ‘good order’ is necessarily synonymous with justice and peace, and it represents the natural outcome of what is called ‘good law’. However, in order to understand this Aristotelian concept, it is necessary to define the meaning of the word ‘law’. In particular, in this essay the word ‘law’ is used in at least three different shades of meaning, that is to indicate the ‘body of rules’, ‘the legal order’ and ‘the judicial process’ through which justice is administered. Therefore these concepts, which clearly do not exclude one another, could define ‘good law’ as a coherent and harmonious body of rules, considered as an ordered framework created and enforced through governmental institutions. From this perspective, the adjective ‘good’ may also imply the idea of intelligibility – which is actually closely related to the concept of order – within the entire system. This theoretical introduction explains the reason why the usage of explicit cross-references is so vital in legal discourse to avoid any kind of conflict among the various texts which take part in shaping this complex system of knowledge. In this regard, an article is certainly part of a statue, which in turn may supplement or abrogate another piece of legislation. The same abstraction can be applied to judicial decisions, which are never isolated from their legal framework and assume authority by referring to legislative provisions or to case law. Once again, Edward Caldwell’s words prove here useful for the understanding of this concept, especially for a simile he draws between the legal framework and some sort of puzzle in which new pieces have to fit: Very rarely is a new legislative provision entirely free-standing… it is a part of a jigsaw puzzle… in passing a new provision you are merely bringing on more piece and so you have to acknowledge that what you are about to do may affect some other bit of the massive statute book39. 39 Edward Caldwell, reported in Bhatia, An investigation into Formal and Functional Characteristics of Qualifications…, p. 172. 110 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES The interwoven nature of legislative provisions is extremely apparent in European legislation, which is exemplified by an extensive use of legal citations composed by numbers. For this reason, the analysis of these legislative provisions proves to be particularly functional for investigating the issue of intertextuality with respect to explicit cross-references. In particular, all European legislative acts contain standard structures and terms to indicate the title of the legislation which exhibits several elements: the type of act (Regulation, Directive or Decision), the reference number, composed by three elements – year, consequential number of the act and abbreviation(s) that apply (e.g. EU, Euratom, CFSP) –, the institution that adopted the measure (e.g. the Council and the Parliament or the Commission), the date on which the measure was passed and a short description of the subject matter, as in the following example (a), which also explicitly declares the relation of this new legislation with regard to earlier directives: (a) DIRECTIVE 2012/27/ EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC40. The above-mentioned directive (a) explicitly states that this document amends and repeals previous directives which, interestingly to note, are identified just through their reference number. In this case, the pragmatic function carried out by numbers, together with initialisms, is to provide a fast reference without having to repeat the official title of the provision, which would make the sentence even longer and more complicated. This solution is often appropriate as it enhances conciseness and precision, apart from facilitating further references to other legal sources, preventing interpretation and legitimacy issues, since even professionals with an extensive knowledge of the subject may have trouble interpreting a new provision 40 DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU, <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32012L0027>, p. 13. 111 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 which does not expressly state if it is amending, implementing or repealing previous legislative acts dealing with the same subject. As far as readability is concerned, the following provision (b) seems to be easy to read as the content is not omitted, while the usage of numbers, together with prepositional phrases and fixed expressions, indicates that this directive must be enforced according to the guidelines established by the directive therein mentioned (i.e., ‘Without prejudice to Article 7’, ‘in application of Article 4 of Directive 2010/31/EU’). As a result, there is absolutely no doubt about the legitimacy and the validity of this provision, which implements the directive mentioned above (i.e., ‘2010/31/EU’) without amending or repealing previous provisions: (b) Without prejudice to Article 7 of Directive 2010/31/EU, each Member State shall ensure that, as from 1 January 2014, 3 % of the total floor area of heated and/or cooled buildings owned and occupied by its central government is renovated each year to meet at least the minimum energy performance requirements that it has set in application of Article 4 of Directive 2010/31/EU41. On the contrary, the sole usage of numbers as cross-references, without any brief explanation concerning the content of the provisions reported, seems to be troublesome as readers are constantly required to consult other documents in order to understand the provision itself, as in the following provision (c): (c) Notwithstanding the first subparagraph, Member States shall bring into force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary to comply with Article 4, the first subparagraph of Article 5(1), Article 5(5), Article 5(6), the last subparagraph of Article 7(9), Article 14(6), Article 41 Ibidem. 112 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES 19(2), Article 24(1) and Article 24(2) and point (4) of Annex V by the dates specified therein42. The analysis of the previous directives shows that numbers are certainly responsible for creating explicit cross-references; however, the type of relation which is established on a case-by-case basis is often expressed by fixed formulaic expressions which have acquired a specific legal flavor and a peculiar meaning in the various official languages of the European Union. In particular, jurists and translators should acquire considerable knowledge as regards these connectives and prepositional phrases, since they play a pivotal role in determining the meaning of the text under consideration. In particular, as far as translation is concerned, the need to maintain the same legal effects produced in the source culture implies that translations of such expressions necessarily have to comply with high standards of accuracy with reference to the pragmatic function performed by these expressions and the legal effects produced by their usage, not to mention the need to meet the stylistic expectation of the target text readers, who clearly expect to come across with familiar and common legal expressions, responsible for adding the so called ‘legal flavor’ to the text. In this regard, an in-depth analysis of the directive on energy efficiency43 shows that numbers are used in the legal citations of this text to achieve at least three main legal effects, which are signaled by fixed formulaic expressions44: I. To signal the authority of the text being referred to. In this case the new legislation integrates the previous one. The most common expressions are under, in accordance with, pursuant to, without prejudice to, translated into 42 Ibidem, p. 27. Ibidem. 44 The Italian translation of these terms demonstrates that it is important for the legal translator to familiarize with these expressions, both in the source and target language, since these prepositional phrases are seldom used outside the legal sphere. 43 113 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 the following Italian expressions: a norma, conformemente, ai sensi, fatto salvo as in the following examples: (d) Member States could include information on energy efficiency levels in their reporting under Directive 2010/75/EU45. [Italian translation: Gli Stati membri potrebbero includere informazioni relative ai livelli di efficienza energetica nelle loro relazioni a norma della direttiva 2010/75/UE]. (e) In accordance with Article 3(2) of Directive 2009/72/EC and Article 3(2) of Directive 2009/73/EC, Member States may impose public service obligations, including in relation to energy efficiency, on undertakings operating in the electricity and gas sectors46. [Italian translation: Conformemente all’articolo 3, paragrafo 2, della direttiva 2009/72/CE e all’articolo 3, paragrafo 2, della direttiva 2009/73/CE, gli Stati membri possono imporre alle imprese che operano nei settori dell’energia elettrica e del gas obblighi di servizio pubblico, anche con riguardo all’efficienza energetica]. (f ) Member States shall lay down the rules on penalties applicable in case of non-compliance with the national provisions adopted pursuant to Articles 7 to 11 and Article 18(3) and shall take the necessary measures to ensure that they are implemented47. [Italian translation: Gli Stati membri stabiliscono le norme relative alle sanzioni applicabili in caso di inosservanza delle disposizioni nazionali adottate ai sensi degli articoli da 7 a 11 e dell’articolo 18, paragrafo 3, e adottano le misure necessarie per garantirne l’applicazione]. (g) Without prejudice to Article 7 of Directive 2010/31/EU, each Member State shall ensure that, as from 1 January 2014, 3 % of the total floor area of heated and/or cooled buildings owned and occupied by its 45 DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU, p. 7. Ibidem, p. 5. 47 Ibidem, p. 20. 46 114 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES central government is renovated each year to meet at least the minimum energy performance requirements that it has set in application of Article 4 of Directive 2010/31/EU48. [Italian translation: Fatto salvo l’articolo 7 della direttiva 2010/31/UE, ciascuno Stato membro garantisce che dal 1 gennaio 2014 il 3 % della superficie coperta utile totale degli edifici riscaldati e/o raffreddati di proprietà del proprio governo centrale e da esso occupati sia ristrutturata ogni anno per rispettare almeno i requisiti minimi di prestazione energetica che esso ha stabilito in applicazione dell’articolo 4 della direttiva 2010/31/UE]. II. To achieve precision at the semantic level. In this case these expressions are used to clarify the meaning which certain words have acquired in legal discourse, deviating from general language. The most common expressions are within the meaning of, as defined in article, translated into the following Italian expressions: ai sensi di, come definiti da, as in the following examples: (h) The Commission shall be assisted by a committee. That committee shall be a committee within the meaning of Regulation (EU) No 182/201149. [Italian translation: La Commissione è assistita da un comitato. Esso è un comitato ai sensi del regolamento (UE) n. 182/2011]. (i) For the purposes of this Directive, the following definitions shall apply: ‘energy’ means all forms of energy products, combustible fuels, heat, renewable energy, electricity, or any other form of energy, as defined in Article 2(d) of Regulation (EC) No 1099/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2008 on energy statistics50; [Italian translation: Ai fini della presente direttiva si intende per: «energia», tutte le forme di prodotti energetici, combustibili, energia termica, energia 48 Ibidem, p. 13. Ibidem, p. 27. 50 Ibidem, p. 10. 49 115 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 rinnovabile, energia elettrica o qualsiasi altra forma di energia, quali definiti all’articolo 2, lettera d), del regolamento (CE) n. 1099/2008 del Parlamento europeo e del Consiglio, del 22 ottobre 2008, relativo alle statistiche dell’energia]. III. To communicate that a provision operates despite another previous one, thus preventing conflicts of interpretation which usually arise when these relations are left implicit. In this case the most used expression is notwithstanding, translated into the Italian expression in deroga, as in the following example: (j) Notwithstanding paragraph 1, the distribution of costs of billing information for the individual consumption of heating and cooling in multi-apartment and multi-purpose buildings pursuant to Article 9(3) shall be carried out on a non-profit basis51. [Italian translation: In deroga al paragrafo 1, la ripartizione dei costi relativi alle informazioni sulla fatturazione per il consumo individuale di riscaldamento e raffreddamento nei condomini e negli edifici polifunzionali ai sensi dell’articolo 9, paragrafo 3, è effettuata senza scopo di lucro]. Legal citations, in the form of explicit cross-references through the usage of numbers, are also extremely persistent in judicial decisions, where they appear to display specific characteristics which differ from those reported with reference to legislative acts. In this respect, an excellent example is provided by the judgements issued by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), whose acronym – interesting to note for the legal translator – changes when translated into the various languages of the European Union52. Just to mention a few examples, in Italian it is translated as Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo (CDU), in 51 Ibidem, p. 19. In this regard, ‘mastering legal citations’ in legal translation also means that the legal translator needs to be aware that acronyms may change when translated into different languages. 52 116 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES French as Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (CEDH), in German as Der Europäische Gerichshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR), and in Spanish as Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos (TEDH). As far as the heading of these judgements is concerned, they always contain: the name of the case, with a clear and fast reference to the application number53, the date on which the judgement was issued, where it took place and the implementation date which establishes when the decision will become binding, as in the following example: (k) CASE OF PROVENZANO v. ITALY (Application no. 55080/1) JUDGEMENT STRASBOURG 25 October 2018 FINAL 25/01/2019 This judgment will become final in the circumstances set out in Article 44 § 2 of the Convention. It may be subject to editorial revision54. In particular, the analysis of this heading reveals that the symbol § stands for ‘section’, while the expressed reference to article 44 of the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) gives authority and legal effects to the judgement itself. For this reason, we could classify this type of legal citation as an ‘intertextual, vertical reference’, since the legal source cited is higher in rank and allows the decision to become legally binding. In these judgements the heading is always followed by a short introductory section entitled ‘Procedure’, which mentions the parties, the application reference number, and most importantly a legal citation declaring the allegedly violated article of the ECHR. In this case this vertical cross-reference performs the function of setting the case for trial, informing the court about the applicant’s request, as in the following example: 53 The application number demonstrates that the application was correctly submitted to the court which registered it. 54 CASE OF PROVENZANO v. ITALY App. No(s).55080/13, <https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/ eng/#{“itemid”:[“001-187186”]}>. 117 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 (l) PROCEDURE The case originated in an application (no. 55080/13) against the Italian Republic lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by the son and the partner of an Italian national, Mr Bernardo Provenzano (“the applicant”)55. Then, the judgement is divided into two main parts: ‘The facts’ and ‘The law’. In particular, the first part – ‘The facts’ – outlines the circumstances of the case and reports the most relevant domestic law and practice with reference to the case submitted to the court. In this section it is quite usual to find numbers acting as ‘intratextual cross-references’, both in the shape of anaphoric and cataphoric references. An example of anaphoric reference is given by section 43 (m) which explicitly refers back to section 41 (n): (m) 43. […] The experts reiterated his complete lack of autonomy in terms of performing basic everyday functions, and highlighted the need to provide him with constant assistance for his nutrition, hydration, personal hygiene, and to prevent complications linked to long-term bed rest. His cognitive situation was described as having worsened since the previous neuropsychological examination (see paragraph 41 above)56. (n) 41. On 11 April 2014 the applicant underwent a neuropsychological examination by a specialist in San Paolo Hospital. He was described as being alert but not complying with instructions, aside from very simple ones. The reporting doctor stated, inter alia, that if the applicant was left on his own he voiced scarcely comprehensible sentences lacking a framework or grammatical structure. One of the conclusions the doctor reached was 55 56 Ibidem, p. 1. Ibidem, p. 8. 118 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES that the applicant’s lack of cooperation made it impossible to evaluate and quantify his cognitive status57. An example of cataphoric reference is given by section 9 (o) which refers to section 25 (p): (o) 9. On 12 December 2012 the court-appointed experts carried out a first examination. However, they were unable to undertake further assessments, because on 17 December 2012 the applicant underwent surgery to remove a subdural haematoma, and was then in recovery (see paragraph 25 below)58. (p) 25. On 17 December 2012 the duty nurse called the doctor, as the applicant was not responding to verbal or painful stimuli. He was transferred to the emergency room of the civilian hospital in Parma, where he underwent urgent surgery for the removal of a subdural haematoma. He was then placed in the hospital’s long-term care unit, and later in its correctional wing59. This part (i.e., ‘The Facts’) also contains several ‘intertextual references’, when references are made to domestic law and practice. For instance, in this judgement it was considered necessary to quote some articles from the Italian Criminal Law Code, in particular articles 146 and 147, and section 41 bis of the Prison Administration Act, which is also mentioned by giving its ‘short’ title composed by the serial number and the date of implementation (Law no. 354 of 15 July 2009): (q) B. Section 41 bis special prison regime 83. Section 41 bis of the Prison Administration Act (Law no. 354 of 26 July 1975), as amended by Law no. 356 of 7 August 1992 and Law no. 94 of 15 July 2009, gives the Minister of Justice the power to suspend the application 57 Ibidem, p. 7. Ibidem, p. 2. 59 Ibidem, p. 5. 58 119 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 of the ordinary prison regime in whole or in part, by means of a reasoned decision, on the grounds of public order and security, in cases where the ordinary prison regime would conflict with these requirements60. All these references found in the section ‘The facts’ – even if different in nature, i.e. ‘intratextual’ and ‘intertextual’ – could be classified as ‘horizontal’, since they are employed to explain the case and to provide necessary background information with regard to the case presented to the court. Finally, the second and final part of the judgement, ‘The law’, contains the final ruling (r) and applies the provisions of the European Convention of Human Rights to the case submitted to the court. The legal citations contained in this part could be classified as ‘intertextual, vertical cross-references’, since they refer to a higher legal source which legitimates the final decision and the legal effects deriving from it, as in the following example: (r) FOR THESE REASONS, THE COURT, UNANIMOUSLY, 1. Accepts the locus standi of the applicant’s son, Mr Angelo Provenzano, to pursue the application in his father’s stead; 2. Declares the application admissible; 3. Holds that there has been no violation of Article 3 of the Convention in respect of the conditions of detention; 4. Holds that there has been a violation of Article 3 of the Convention on account of the renewed application of the special prison regime on 23 March 2016; 5. Holds that the finding of a violation constitutes in itself sufficient just satisfaction for the non-pecuniary damage sustained by the applicant; 6. Dismisses the applicant’s claim for just satisfaction. Done in English, and notified in writing on 25 October 2018, pursuant to Rule 77 §§ 2 and 3 of the Rules of Court61. 60 61 Ibidem, p. 17. Ibidem, p. 36. 120 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES 3. Numbers and Plain Language Movement Striving for simplicity has always been a goal for good law. The historical record, however, shows that things turned out differently and that simplicity, meaning a law that can ideally be understood by everybody, still remains a desirable feature in the field of Law. The idea that language policies are issues of public interest, since language can be an instrument of inclusion or exclusion, began to attract the public consciousness in the late 1970’s, when several scholars began to advocate the use of a ‘plainer English’ in specialized texts and above all legal texts, as legalese and bureaucratic language had become too difficult to understand for ordinary citizens. In recent years the Plain Language Movement and the related need to reform the language of the law have emerged as international topics: in USA the example set by Jimmy Carter62 (the first to establish that federal regulations had to be written in plainer language) was followed by Bill Clinton63 and by Obama, who signed the Plain Writing Act64 on October 13, 2011. Significantly, this date was also declared the International Plain Language Day, in order to raise awareness of the advances made by this movement. In Europe, the Plain English Campaign65 has been promoting in Great Britain the use of a more intelligible language since 1979, while in 1998 the European Commission promoted a campaign with the meaningful name 62 Carter, Executive Order No. 12044, March 23, 1978, Improving Government Regulations. See also No. 12174, November 30, 1979, Federal Paperwork Reduction, available at: <https:// ballotpedia.org/Presidential_Executive_Order_12044_(Jimmy_Carter,_1978)>. 63 W. Clinton, Memorandum on Plain Language in Government Writings, June 1, 1998, Plain Language in Government Writing, available at: <https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/WCPD1998-06-08/pdf/WCPD-1998-06-08-Pg1010.pdf>. 64 According to which government documents are to be written in plain language, defined as a: «writing that is clear, concise, well-organized, and follows other best practices appropriate to the subject or field and intended audience». Plain Writing Act, available at: <https://www.govinfo.gov/ content/pkg/PLAW-111publ274/pdf/PLAW-111publ274.pdf>. 65 Official website: <http://www.plainenglish.co.uk>. 121 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 ‘Fight the fog’66, and in 2002 a similar project, ‘Chiaro!’67, was inaugurated in Italy in order to simplify the language of the bureaucracy. These experiences demonstrate that ‘Plain language’ is a process aimed at meeting the readers’ needs68 and that its guidelines are not to be confined solely to the English-speaking world, as it is universally acknowledged that the reader’s cognitive process can benefit from the avoidance of circumlocutions, verbosity, archaic language and from a user-friendly layout: Just as important as clear language is careful layout and design. If a document looks terrifying it does not matter how easy the words are: they will never be read. Good design sets the tone for the document. It communicates the document’s intent as much as words do. It also makes the document more useful, by guiding the reader’s eye to the information he or she wants to know69. For the purpose of this research, it is interesting to note that these guidelines give great prominence also to layout issues. According to Peter Butt70, a founding director of the Centre for Plain Legal Language at the University of Sydney, there are plenty of ways to improve the design of legal documents, as for example the use of serif typeface and double-space for the body text, generous white margins on the left to allow notations and, most of all, numbering techniques for listing information. 66 Available at: <http://www.maldura.unipd.it/buro/manuali/fog.pdf>. Available at: <http://www.funzionepubblica.gov.it/articolo/dipartimento/08-05-2002/direttiva-semplificazione-linguaggio>. 68 Peter Butt defines Plain Language as: «language that communicates directly with the audience for which is written […]. It is organized in a way that meets the reader’s needs, to the writer’s needs. It avoids circumlocution and omits surplus words. In short, it uses modern, standard English – English of the kind found every day in the better newspapers and journals». Butt, Legalese versus Plain Language, p. 28. 69 Conference of Experts in Clear Legal Drafting, National Center for Administrative Justice, Washington DC, 2 June 1978, in Dickerson, Materials on Legal Drafting, p. 294. 70 Butt, Modern Legal Drafting, pp. 145-158. 67 122 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES In this regard, it may be interesting to see to what extent the usage of numbers can influence the structure of legal documents in order to foster their readability. By way of demonstration, it could be worth considering the following example of a ‘force majeure clause’ – something actually very frequent in international sale contracts –, whose reading and consequent interpretation present the reader with some apparent difficulties: (s) Notwithstanding any other terms and conditions hereof, in the event that a party is materially unable to perform any of its obligations hereunder because of natural disasters, Act of God, riots, wars, acts of terrorism, governmental action or any other event, whether or not similar to the causes specified herein, that are beyond such party’s control, then said Party shall, upon written notice to the other Party thereof, be relieved from its performance of such obligations, that such performance is prevented by such events, provided that such Party shall at all times use its best efforts to resume such performance71. If one were to apply the above-discussed guidelines to this article and ‘rewrite’ it so as to obtain a simplified version of same, some specific strategies aimed at improving its readability would need be applied; it would be desirable, for instance, to omit surplus words (e.g. hereof, said, thereof, such) and break up the original long sentence (about a hundred words) in ‘easilydigestible’ units of meaning, possibly presenting them in a numbered list. The result would thus be as follows: (t) Notwithstanding any other terms or condition contained in this contract, the Party will be relieved from the performance of its obligations, by giving written notice to the other Party, if despite its best efforts these obligations cannot be performed because of: 71 Available at: <https://www.trans-lex.org/944000/_/force-majeure/>. 123 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 I) Natural disasters, Act of God, riots, wars, acts of terrorism, governmental action; II) Any other event, that is beyond the Party’s control. A solution of this kind is often appropriate when it is necessary to change the logical structure of the sentence in order to enhance the intelligibility of the provision, since sometimes it may be necessary to present the legal effects immediately at the beginning of the provision (i.e., ‘the Party will be relieved from the performance of its obligations’), placing them before the conditions and exceptions (i.e. ‘natural disasters, Acts of God, any other event beyond the Party’s control etc.), which can instead be ordered as a numbered list. In this regard, the second clause (t), rewritten according to the parameters of the plain language Movements, demonstrates that numbered lists can encourage readers to progress through the document, since the logical structure progresses from general to specific provisions, and not vice versa. Moreover, the use of numbered lists fosters intelligibility and clarity, as each sentence contains only one main concept and the cognitive process is not overloaded. Conclusions The starting point of this study was to investigate the usage of numbers in legal discourse with the purpose of providing a research which could account for their semantic, pragmatic and stylistic function in this particular field. In this regard, this research was never meant to become a mere descriptive study about the internal structure of legal documents, giving a detailed account of how contracts, legislative acts or judicial decisions are internally organized through the usage of numbers. Such a research would have been much more appropriate for an essay addressed to law students, more interested in studying legal concepts and their mutual relationships. On the contrary, the purpose of this study was to provide an overall theoretical framework for linguists and translators, which could demonstrate that ‘mastering legal discourse’ also implies ‘mastering numbers’ and their usage in this field. 124 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES Certainly, for those who are used to analyzing texts from this field only in terms of lexical and syntactic features, this may sound a bit strange. However, as already explained in this research, numbers perform a crucial denotative function in legal discourse, as they are generally used to refer to legal provisions, acting as if they were part of an encoded language, incomprehensible to any but the few initiated. For this reason it is often difficult for laymen to understand the language used by lawyers and jurists, who make considerable use of these elements in order to be as accurate as possible, since it is much easier to report the number of an article than having to repeat by heart the entire provision, running the risk of making mistakes. Moreover, this denotative function implies that numbers can also be employed to make explicit cross-references among different legal texts. In this way, they become a striking feature which cannot be ignored, since the study of their communicative function can provide a considerable insight into the systemic nature of legal discourse with regard to the numerous interconnections which are responsible for the creation of the meaning of legal texts. On some level, the study of the intertextual nature of legal discourse may appear to represent a ‘step forward’ with regard to what is often studied when dealing with legal language; by certain aspects, however, it is more like a ‘step backward’. In particular, as already mentioned, even the most studied features of legal language (wordiness, precision, redundancy, expressions with flexible meaning, terms of art, complex and long sentences etc.) fulfil pragmatic needs which appear to be closely related to the issue of intertextuality. For these reasons, the analysis of the intertextual nature of legal discourse should precede and not follow the study of the main linguistic features of legal language, which appear to be an effect of a deeper phenomenon. As already pointed out, numbers can perform a significant role in the creation of meaning when they are used, together with fixed expressions and prepositional phrases, to create explicit cross-references within the same document (‘intratextual references’) or among different legal texts (‘intertextual references’), serving different pragmatic purposes, such as providing authority (e.g. in legislative provisions or judicial decisions), declaring the type of relation existing among different texts (e.g. in legislative provisions they specify if the new legislation amends, repeals or integrates previous ones) or 125 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 fulfilling informative purposes (e.g. by explaining the meaning of certain words in legislative provisions or by giving background information about the case in judicial decisions). Finally, the usage of numbers aimed at organizing and systematizing legal documents is attracting enormous worldwide attention thanks to the activity of the Plain Language Movement, according to which legal documents should be drafted using a modern, standard English together with a user-friendly layout, since the use of complex language and intricate sentence structure can deny citizens the opportunity to participate in policymaking. 126 MASTERING NUMBERS IN LEGAL DISCOURSE: PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSLATION ISSUES WORKS CITED Barthes, Roland, The Death of the Author, in Image Music Text, S. Heath (ed.), Fontana Press, London 1977. Beaupré, Rémi Michael, Interpreting Bilingual Legislation, Carswell, Toronto 1986. Bhatia, Vijay Kumar, An investigation into Formal and Functional Characteristics of Qualifications in Legislative Writing and its Application to English for Academic Purposes, available at: <https://research.aston.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/an-investigation-into-formal-and-functional-characteristics-of-qu>. Butt, Peter, Legalese Versus Plain Language, in Amicus Curiae, (2001), available at: <https://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/3751/1/1332-1452-1-SM.pdf> Butt, Peter, Modern Legal Drafting, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2013. Cohen, George, Interpretation and Implied Terms in Contract Law, in Encyclopedia of Law and Economics, Gerrit De Geest (ed.), Edward Elgar, Cheltenham (UK) 2011, vol. VI. Danet, Brenda, Language in the Legal Process, in “Law and Society Review”, 14/3 (1980), pp. 445-564. Dickerson, Frederick Reed, Materials on Legal Drafting, West Publishing Company, Eagan (Minnesota) 1981. Everson, Stephen, Aristotle, the Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988. Gotti, Maurizio, Investigating Specialized Discourse, Peter Lang, Bern 2011. Kornstein, Daniel, Kill All the Lawyers? Shakespears’s Legal Appeal, University of Nebraska Press, Princeton 1994. Mattila, Heikki, Comparative Legal Linguistics, Ashgate, Aldershot 2006. Mellinkoff, David, The Language of the Law, Little Brown and Co., Boston and Toronto 1963. Pino, Giorgio, The Place of Legal Positivism in Contemporary Constitutional States, in “Law and Philosophy”, 18 (1999), pp. 513-536. Pizzorni, Reginaldo, Il diritto naturale dalle origini a S. Tommaso d’Aquino, Studio Domenicano, Bologna 2000. Shakespeare, William, The Merchant of Venice, Routledge, London 1988. 127 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 Tiersma, Peter Meijes, Legal Language, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1999. Todorov, Tzvetan, Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1984. Ward, Ian, Law and Literature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995. SITOGRAPHY Carter J., Executive Order No. 12044, March 23, 1978, Improving Government Regulations, No. 12174, November 30, 1979, Federal Paperwork Reduction, <https:// ballotpedia.org/Presidential_Executive_Order_12044_(Jimmy_Carter,_1978)>. CASE OF PROVENZANO v. ITALY App. No(s).55080/13, <https://hudoc.echr. coe.int/eng/#{“itemid”:[“001-187186”]}>. CHIARO! DIRETTIVA SULLA SEMPLIFICAZIONE DEL LINGUAGGIO, <http://www.funzionepubblica.gov.it/articolo/dipartimento/08-05-2002/ direttiva-semplificazione-linguaggio>. W. Clinton, Memorandum on Plain Language in Government Writings, June 1, 1998, Plain Language in Government Writing, <https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/ WCPD-1998-06-08/pdf/WCPD-1998-06-08-Pg1010.pdf.>. DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU, <https://eurlex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/ TXT/?uri=celex%3A32012L0027>. Fight the Fog: how to write clearly, <http://www.maldura.unipd.it/buro/manuali/fog. pdf>. Obama, Plain Writing Act, <https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW111publ274/pdf/PLAW-111publ274.pdf>. Plain English Campaign, available at: <http://www.plainenglish.co.uk>. 128 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 ABSTRACTS GUALTIERO ROTA Numerology and exegesis between furor and ‘ irrisio mathematica’ Number symbolism and arithmology in ancient Christian texts are here discussed: among the many examples of both Patristic and gnostic ‘serious’ numerological exegesis, the present paper aims at showing how Hermia’s treatment of Pythagorean numbers (Irrisio gentilium philosophorum, chapter 16) stands out as a curious case of ‘mathematical irrisio’. Key words: Christian arithmology; patristic and gnostic number exegesis; Hermia’s satire on numbers. Numerologia ed esegesi tra furor e ‘irrisio mathematica’ Nel contesto della produzione cristiana antica avente per oggetto il simbolismo numerico e l’aritmologia, nonché nel novero dei molti esempi, patristici e gnostici, di esegesi numerologica, il contributo mira a palesare il tono ironico e dissacratorio che sembra informare il capitolo dedicato da Ermia, nell’Irrisio gentilium philosophorum, a Pitagora e ai suoi numeri. Parole chiave: artimologia cristiana; esegesi numerologica patristica e gnostica; la satira di Ermia sui numeri. MICHELA CANEPARI The value of numbers between esotericism and mathematics: issues of intertextuality and intersemioticity This article traces a brief excursus of the value assigned to numbers in different fields, in order to assess the extent to which the mystical vision of the numerical element finds a place in products of various nature that draw their origin in the contemporary world. Starting from a brief presentation of the importance of the numerical element in the Kabbalah, the article therefore examines the connections between this vision and the typically Pythagorean one, briefly analyzing the strong intertextual relationships existing between the two. The paper concludes with an analysis of audiovisual products that present themselves as intersemiotic 230 APPENDICE and intralinguistic translations of texts by mathematicians such as Mario Livio, focused on the importance that numbers assume in the daily lives of speakers. Key words: Intertextuality, intersemiotic translation, intralinguistic translation. Il valore dei numeri fra esoterismo e matematica: questioni di intertestualità e intersemioticità Questo articolo traccia un breve excursus sul valore assegnato ai numeri in ambiti differenti, al fine di valutare fino a che punto la visione mistica dell’elemento numerico trovi posto in prodotti di varia natura che traggono la loro origine nella contemporaneità. Partendo da una breve presentazione dell’importanza dell’elemento numerico nell’antica tradizione della Cabala, l’articolo prende pertanto in esame i legami fra questa visione e quella tipicamente pitagorica, analizzando brevemente i forti rapporti di intertestualità esistenti fra i due, per concludere con un’analisi di prodotti audiovisivi realizzati che si pongono come traduzioni intersemiotiche e intralinguistiche di testi di matematici quali Mario Livio, focalizzati sull’importanza che i numeri assumono nella quotidianità dei parlanti. Parole chiave: Intertestualità, traduzione intersemiotica, traduzione intralinguistica. MICÒL BESEGHI Linguistic plurality and audiovisual translation: the case of Call Me by Your Name This paper focuses on the representation of linguistic and cultural diversity in cinema, which, in the last decades, has increasingly included multilingualism in its productions. The film Call Me by Your Name (2017) by the Italian director Luca Guadagnino, adapted from the novel by André Aciman, is analysed, not only to show its use of multiple languages and language variants, but also to investigate how multilingualism is exploited to express the characters’ identities and the complex dynamics and evolving relationships between them. After examining the functions played by multilingualism in the original version of the film, the paper focuses on its Italian translated version, which, in spite of the recent tendency in Italian dubbing to at least partially preserve multilingualism, prefers neutralisation, reducing significantly the multilingual dimension of the film. Key words: multilingualism, audiovisual translation, dubbing, characterization. Pluralità linguistica e traduzione audiovisiva: il caso di Call Me by Your Name Il contributo affronta il tema della rappresentazione della diversità linguistica e culturale sul grande schermo, un fenomeno sempre più frequente nella produzione cinematografica degli ultimi anni, che sarà qui esaminato attraverso l’analisi del film Call Me by Your Name (Chiamami col tuo nome, 2017, Luca Guadagnino), adattamento dell’omonimo romanzo di André Aciman. L’obiettivo principale è quello di mettere in luce le funzioni delle numerose lingue utilizzate e il loro complesso ruolo nella versione originale del film. L’articolo si focalizzerà, poi, sulle implicazioni traduttive relative alla pluralità linguistica e culturale e sulla discussione delle strategie traduttive adottate nel doppiaggio per il pubblico italiano, che, in questo caso, limitano in modo drastico il numero delle lingue presenti nella versione originale. Parole chiave: multilinguismo, traduzione audiovisiva, doppiaggio, caratterizzazione. 231 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 VIRGINIA VECCHIATO From Pythagoras to Daniel Tammet: the Thin Red Line between Synesthesia and Intersemiotic Translation This paper aims at presenting a ‘strange case’ of intersemiotic translation, from numbers into words through sensations, or rather thanks to, synesthesia. In particular, it focuses on the issue of intersemiotic translation by questioning whether or not it can be extended to Daniel Tammet’s gift of synesthesia, which is quite beyond Jakobson’s plain notion of transmutation. Key words: synestesia, intersemiotic translation, ekphrasis, Daniel Tammet. Da Pitagora a Daniel Tammet: la linea sottile fra sinestesia e traduzione intersemiotica Questo articolo mira a presentare uno “strano caso” di traduzione intersemiotica, dai numeri in parole attraverso sensazioni, o piuttosto grazie alla sinestesia. In particolare, si concentra sulla questione della traduzione intersemiotica mettendo in dubbio se possa essere estesa o meno al dono di sinestesia di Daniel Tammet, che va ben oltre la semplice nozione di trasmutazione di Jakobson. Parole chiave: sinestesia, traduzione intersemiotica, ekphrasis, Daniel Tammet. FABIOLA NOTARI Mastering Numbers in Legal Discourse: Pragmatic Perspectives and Translation Issues The present article aims at exploring the issue of intertextuality with reference to the specific usage of numbers in legal discourse. In this regard, the analysis of legal citations seems to be of particular interest to legal linguistics and legal translation as it concerns semantic, pragmatic and stylistic issues related to legal language. These aspects are discussed by analyzing European legislation and judicial decisions issued by the European Court of Human Rights, in order to demonstrate that legal citations are used to eliminate internal contradictions within the whole legal framework, thus reinforcing the systemic character of the law. Finally, this research focuses on the usage of numbers to achieve intelligibility and user-friendly layout in legal documents, as suggested by the Plain Language Movement. Key words: numbers, legal citations, intertextuality, legal discourse, Plain Language Movement, European Legislation, European Court of Human Rights. Padroneggiare i numeri nel discorso legale: prospettive pragmatiche e questioni traduttive Il presente articolo si propone di indagare l’uso dei numeri nel linguaggio legale che appare essere intimamente legato alla natura intertestuale del discorso giuridico. In questo senso il loro uso nelle citazioni legali appare particolarmente interessante in quanto si dimostra avere importanti implicazioni – specialmente a livello semantico, pragmatico e stilistico – tali da non poter essere ignorate dalla linguistica o dalle teorie sulla traduzione che si occupano di linguaggio giuridico. Questi aspetti vengono indagati facendo riferimento alla legislazione dell’UE e alle sentenze della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo, particolarmente atte a dimostrare l’uso di queste citazioni al fine di eliminare possibili contraddizioni interne al sistema legale, sottolineando cosi il carattere sistematico dell’ordinamento giuridico. Questa ricerca 232 APPENDICE si concentra infine sulla possibilità di utilizzare elenchi numerati per semplificare il layout e la struttura sintattica dei testi legali, raggiungendo una maggiore intelligibilità dei documenti stessi, così come proposto dal Plain Language Movement. Parole chiave: numeri, citazioni legali, intertestualità, discorso legale, Plain Language Movement, diritto dell’Unione Europea, Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo. NATAŠA RASCHI Quelle langue parlent les mathématiques? Une analyse comparative des mémoires de Diderot et D’Alembert sur l’acoustique Dans cet essai, nous nous concentrons sur les écrits mathématiques de Diderot et D’Alembert concernant le problème de l'acoustique. Après une ouverture qui situe la méthodologie adoptée entre linguistique descriptive et comparaison textuelle et après un éclaircissement sur le contexte scientifique de l’époque, nous passons à la présentation du corpus, composé de Mémoires et d’articles de l’Encyclopédie. Nous expliquons également la valeur des dessins qui les accompagnent pour arriver, enfin, à l’analyse textuelle. L’objectif de ce travail est de comparer l’approche et la production mathématique des deux co-directeurs de la plus grande aventure savante du siècle des Lumières. Suivant des voies différentes, notre recherche rétablit ainsi un équilibre entre la pensée axiomatique de D’Alembert et l’intérêt de Diderot pour cette discipline. Mots-clés: Langue française, mathématiques, acoustique, Diderot, D'Alembert, Encyclopédie What language do mathematicians speak? A comparative analysis of the Diderot and D’Alembert’s memories on acoustics In this paper, we focus our attention on the mathematical writings of Diderot and D’Alembert in relation to the problem of acoustics. After an introduction, which explains the methodology adopted between descriptive linguistics and textual comparison, the paper clarifies the scientific context of the time. Afterwards, we move on to the presentation of the corpus, composed of mémoires and articles from the Encyclopédie. We also explain the value of the drawings that accompany them. The purpose of this work is to compare the approach and mathematical production of the two co-directors of the greatest aventure savante of the Enlightenment. Following different paths, our research thus re-establishes a balance between the axiomatic thinking of D’Alembert and the interest of Diderot for this discipline, constantly turned to the mechanical arts. Key words: French language, mathematics, acoustics, Diderot, D’Alembert, Encyclopédie. Che lingua parlano i matematici? Un’analisi comparativa delle memorie di Diderot e D’Alembert sull’acustica In questo saggio, concentriamo la nostra attenzione sugli scritti matematici di Diderot e D’Alembert riguardanti il problema dell’acustica. Dopo un’apertura che situa la metodologia adottata fra la linguistica descrittiva e la comparazione testuale e dopo aver chiarito il contesto scientifico dell’epoca, passiamo alla presentazione del corpus, composto di mémoires e di articoli dell’Encyclopédie. Spieghiamo, inoltre, il valore dei disegni che li accompagnano per arrivare, 233 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 infine, all’analisi testuale. Scopo del presente lavoro è il confronto fra l’approccio e la produzione matematica dei due co-direttori della più grande aventure savante del secolo dei Lumi. Seguendo diverse piste, la nostra ricerca ristabilisce, così, un equilibrio fra il pensiero assiomatico di D’Alembert e l’interesse di Diderot per questa disciplina, un interesse costantemente rivolto alle arti meccaniche. Parole chiave: Lingua francese, matematica, acustica, Diderot, D’Alembert, Encyclopédie. ELISABETTA LONGHI The endless Parentheses of German This paper presents parenthesis structures which are typical of German syntax, by focusing, first of all, on their extension and on the dependency relations that arise when more parentheses are used. Some examples will be shown to illustrate the level of complexity these structures can reach, thereby demonstrating why learners of German consider them particularly problematic. Then, I will discuss whether and to which extent the grammar textbooks enable students to overcome such difficulties, by distinguishing among various typologies of texts. In the end, the application of specific mathematical models to the study of German syntax will be discussed, so as to facilitate and improve learners’ comprehension of the most elaborate constructions and of the corresponding linguistic hierarchies. Key words: Syntax, parenthesis structures, language didactics, German, syntactic fields. Le infinite parentesi del tedesco L’articolo presenta le tipiche strutture a parentesi della sintassi tedesca, soffermandosi soprattutto sulla loro estensione e sui rapporti di dipendenza che si instaurano nel caso siano presenti più parentesi. Tramite alcuni esempi si mostra a che livello di complessità possono giungere queste strutture, spiegando in tal modo perché chi apprende il tedesco le considera particolarmente problematiche. Ci si chiede poi se e in che misura le grammatiche attualmente in uso consentono di sormontare tali difficoltà, distinguendo fra varie tipologie di testi. Si perviene infine alla proposta di applicare taluni modelli matematici allo studio della sintassi tedesca, al fine di facilitare, da parte dei discenti, la comprensione delle costruzioni più elaborate e delle rispettive gerarchie. Parole chiave: Sintassi, strutture a parentesi, didattica della lingua, tedesco, campi sintattici. GIORGIA DELVECCHIO César Vallejo’s Trilce: a Poetic suspended between Pythagoreanism and binary Symbolism From the neologism that gave the title to the collection to the original numerical metaphors, Trilce’s poetics is distinguished by the recurring use of numbers. The analysis of the connotations and symbolic meanings that César Vallejo attributed to it, allows us to trace multiple references to the Pythagorean doctrine related to the metaphysics of numbers and to define their role within the existential and poetic research that the author carried out between 1918 and 1922, the years preceding his definitive departure from Perù. Key words: Vallejo, Trilce, numbers, Pythagoreanism. 234 APPENDICE Trilce, di César Vallejo: una poetica in bilico tra pitagorismo e simbolismo binario Dal neologismo che diede il titolo alla raccolta alle inedite metafore numeriche, la poetica di Trilce si distingue per l’impiego ricorrente del numero. L’analisi delle connotazioni e dei valori simbolici che César Vallejo gli attribuì permette di rintracciare molteplici riferimenti alla dottrina pitagorica relativa alla metafisica del numero e di definire il loro ruolo all’interno della ricerca esistenziale e poetica che l’autore portò avanti fra il 1918 e il 1922, gli anni che precedettero la sua partenza definitiva dal Perù. Parole chiave: Vallejo, Trilce, numero, pitagorismo. OLEKSANDRA REKUT-LIBERATORE The Geometry of the Landscape and the Arithmetic of the Elements in Aldo Palazzeschi’s White Horses Aldo Palazzeschi’s first collection of poetry, The White Horses (1905), was the result of a fusion between landscape geometry and basic arithmetic. The geometric figures that recur in the 25 pieces that make up the collection remain constant: circle and line. While this ‘mathematical reading’ of the text, which occasionally examines the metrical techniques used by the poet, makes explicit use of numerology, it also requires an imaginative reconstruction of Palazzeschi’s verses in order to draw out of them the geometrical forms of cone and cylinder hidden within their folds. The young Palazzeschi adds round numbers (‘a hundred’, ‘a thousand’) to the elementary numbers from 1 to 7, as well as an approximate measure drawn from the word ‘migliaia’ (thousands), to indicate an extremely large amount. The numbers most frequently used are ‘one’, which sometimes signifies stasis, and ‘one hundred’, which often refers to the characters’ ages and to architectural forms. Key words: Palazzeschi, circle, line, cone, cylinder, number, geometric figures, basic arithmetic. Geometria del paesaggio e aritmetica degli elementi nei Cavalli bianchi di Aldo Palazzeschi La prima raccolta poetica di Aldo Palazzeschi I cavalli bianchi (1905) è frutto della mescita di geometria del paesaggio e aritmetica basica. Le figure geometriche che si ripetono nei 25 componimenti sono sempre le medesime: cerchio e linea. Mentre nel nostro ‘mathematical reading’, salvo qualche espediente metrico, si fa ricorso a una esplicita numerologia, per la geometria è necessario servirsi dell’immaginazione ricavando in tal modo le figure del cono e del cilindro nascoste nelle pieghe delle liriche. Ai numeri elementari dall’1 al 7 dell’esordiente Palazzeschi si aggiungono cifre tonde (cento, mille) e una misura spuria resa dal vocabolo ‘migliaia’ per indicare un’esagerata quantità. I numeri più frequentemente usati sono l’‘uno’, che indica talvolta l’immobilità e talaltra la velocità, e ‘cento’ riferito spesso all’età dei personaggi e agli elementi architettonici. Parole chiave: Palazzeschi, cerchio, linea, cono, cilindro, numero, figure geometriche, aritmetica basica. 235 APPENDICE GLI AUTORI Micòl Beseghi è ricercatore di Lingua e Traduzione Inglese presso l’Università di Parma. Ha conseguito un dottorato di Ricerca in Lingue e Culture Comparate presso l’Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia. I suoi principali interessi di ricerca e pubblicazioni riguardano la traduzione audiovisiva, la didattica della traduzione e la didattica delle lingue straniere. Ha recentemente pubblicato una monografia intitolata Multilingual Films in Translation con la casa editrice Peter Lang Oxford (2017). Michela Canepari è professore associato di Lingua e traduzione inglese presso l’Università degli Studi di Parma. I suoi principali interessi di ricerca vertono sulla traduzione postcoloniale, culturale, interlinguistica e intersemiotica, vari rami della linguistica (analisi del discorso, linguistica critica, sociolinguistica, linguagi specialistici ecc.). Le sue pubblicazioni includono i libri Word-Worlds (Peter Lang, 2002), Old-Myths - Modern Empires (Peter Lang, 2005), Viaggio intersemiotico nel linguaggio della scienza (Nuova Cultura, 2013), Teoria e Pratica della Traduzione Proposta di un metodo (Libreria Universitaria, 2018), A Systematic Approach to Interpretation and Translation (Harmattan, 2020). È anche autrice di vari articoli in riviste nazionali e internazionali. Giorgia Delvecchio attualmente è insegnante, formatrice e membro del gruppo di ricerca DEAL (Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia), oltre che autrice di materiali per la glottodidattica dello spagnolo. Ha tenuto numerosi corsi di Letteratura Ispanoamericana presso l’Università di Parma. In ambito letterario si è occupata principalmente degli scrittori contemporanei della Diaspora ebraica ispanoamericana e dell’opera poetica di César Vallejo. Di questo autore ha tradotto e curato un’edizione critica dell’opera España, aparta de mí este cáliz (Liguori). Elisabetta Longhi è attualmente ricercatrice di Lingua e traduzione tedesca presso l’Università di Parma, dopo essere stata assegnista di ricerca e docente a contratto a Parma, Macerata e Modena. Si occupa fin dal dottorato di questioni stilistiche, anche in ambito interculturale e in ottica traduttiva, con applicazioni pratiche all’analisi di testi sia letterari, sia settoriali. In campo 237 LA TORRE DI BABELE_15 didattico i suoi interessi sono focalizzati sull’uso delle nuove tecnologie per l’insegnamento delle lingue e sulla grammatica contrastiva tedesco-italiano. Ha sperimentato diverse modalità di tandem in videoconferenza, esperienze presentate e discusse a convegni in Italia e all’estero (EMEMITALIA, ICT for Language Learning, ALCTES, Fremdsprachenlernen im Tandem in der tertiären Bildung) e in articoli scientifici, fra i quali va menzionato in particolare Videokonferenzen: Computervermitteltes Tandemlernen zwischen Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit, scritto in collaborazione con Chiara Angelini e Katharina Jakob e pubblicato nel 2016 sulla “Torre di Babele”. Fabiola Notari ha conseguito dapprima una laurea triennale in Civiltà e Lingue Straniere e Moderne presso l’Università di Parma con tesi dal titolo Spot pubblicitari in italiano e tedesco: un confronto. Successivamente ha proseguito gli studi presso la medesima Università conseguendo con il massimo dei voti la laurea magistrale in Lingue e Letterature Moderne Europee e Americane con tesi dal titolo L’inglese giuridico nella traduzione del contratto internazionale di vendita. Nel corso della sua formazione ha approfondito l’ambito del diritto, superando con lode l’esame di diritto privato presso la Facoltà di Giurisprudenza di Parma. Attualmente lavora come traduttrice e si occupa dell’insegnamento delle lingue straniere nell’ambito dell’inglese, tedesco e spagnolo presso il suo studio “The Mad Hatter”. Nataša Raschi, dopo il conseguimento della laurea (Università Cattolica di Milano) e del Dottorato in Letterature francofone (Università di Bologna-Université Paris-Sorbonne), è professore associato di Lingua francese presso il Dipartimento di Lettere dell’Università degli Studi di Perugia. Gli ambiti principali delle sue ricerche sono tre: il francese come lingua di specialità (Il francese della matematica, Aracne, 2012); la variazione linguistica e il francese d’altrove (Langue française et presse africaine, Aracne, 2010); le letterature francofone e la loro traduzione (Quand le tronc se fait caïman. Drammaturgie di Costa d’Avorio, Bulzoni, 2002). Oleksandra Rekut-Liberatore è assegnista di ricerca all’Università degli Studi di Firenze. Tra il 2003 e il 2007 ha insegnato Letterature comparate all’Università di Kiev. Trasferitasi in Italia, ha conseguito la seconda laurea e il dottorato di ricerca in Letteratura e filologia italiana. A partire da un forte interesse per l’ermeneutica, le sue ricerche vertono sui registri narratologici e finzionali del testo, con particolare attenzione agli incroci interdisciplinari tra letteratura e fisiopatologia. Ha pubblicato i volumi Finzione e alterità dell’io: presenze nella scrittura femminile tra XX e XXI secolo (SEF, 2013), Metastasi cartacee. Intrecci tra neoplasia e letteratura (FUP, 2017, Vincitore Premio Ricerca “Città di Firenze”), Dai sogni dei malati di carta alla psico-oncologia. Un percorso commentato tra testi esemplari (FUP, 2020) e numerosi altri saggi su autori italiani e stranieri del Novecento. Gualtiero Rota è professore associato di Letteratura cristiana antica, Esegesi testamentaria e Filologia classica presso l’Università di Parma. Si è occupato di traduzione sia come traduttore di articoli scientifici di carattere filologico (fra gli altri, per Julia Haig Gaisser, Giuseppe Gilberto Biondi, Francis Cairns), sia in veste di autore di contributi inerenti ad aspetti traduttologici dei 238 APPENDICE Libri Sapienziali. Tra i suoi principali interessi di ricerca figurano: testi gnostici in lingua greca e i rapporti fra cristianesimo delle origini e gnosticismo; esegesi allegorica e filologia biblica veterotestamentaria, con riferimento specifico alle problematiche ermeneutico-traduttive che emergono nel passaggio dagli originali in lingua ebraica alle traduzioni greche e latine dei testi Sapienziali, in particolare del libro del Siracide; letteratura scientifica, con particolare attenzione alla compenetrazione fra letteratura cristiana e testi sismologici di àmbito bizantino (Giovanni Lido); apologetica in lingua greca e la letteratura cristiana pseudepigrafa. 239