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FOUNDATIONS
OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE
Behrouz Forouzan
FOURTH EDITION

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FOUNDATIONS OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE
4TH EDITION
BEHROUZ FOROUZAN

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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To Ryan, Justin, William, and Benjamin

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Contents
Preface xi
Trademarks xvii

1 Introduction 1
Turing Model 2
Von Neumann Model 4
Computer Components 6
History9
Computer Science as a Discipline  11
Outline of the Course 12
End-Chapter Materials 13
Practice Set 14

2 Number Systems 15
Introduction16
Positional Number Systems 16
Nonpositional Number Systems 31
End-Chapter Materials 32
Practice Set 34

3 Data Storage 39
Data Types 40
Storing Numbers 42
Storing Text 60
Storing Audio 61
Storing Images 63
Storing Video 65
End-Chapter Materials 66
Practice Set 68

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vi  ontents
C

4 Operations on Data 73
Logic Operations 74
Shift Operations 79
Arithmetic Operations 82
End-Chapter Materials 86
Practice Set 87

5 Computer Organization 91
Introduction92
Central Processing Unit 92
Main Memory 94
Input/Output Subsystem 97
Subsystem Interconnection 104
Program Execution 109
Different Architectures 113
A Simple Computer 117
End-Chapter Materials 126
Practice Set 130

6 Computer Networks and ­Internet 133


Overview134
Application Layer 143
Transport Layer 156
Network Layer 159
Data-Link Layer 166
Physical Layer 174
Transmission Media  177
End-Chapter Materials 180
Practice Set 183

7 Operating Systems 187


Introduction188
Evolution189
Components  191
A Survey of Operating Systems 203
End-Chapter Materials 207
Practice Set 209

8 Algorithms 213
Concept214
Three Constructs 218
Algorithm Representation 219
A More Formal Definition 223
Basic Algorithms 224

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Contents
 vii

Subalgorithms233
Recursion234
End-Chapter Materials 236
Practice Set 238

9 Programming Languages 243


Evolution244
Translation246
Programming Paradigms 248
Common Concepts  257
End-Chapter Materials 267
Practice Set 269

10 Software Engineering 273


The Software Lifecycle 274
Analysis Phase 276
Design Phase 279
Implementation Phase 280
Testing Phase 283
Documentation285
End-Chapter Materials  286
Practice Set 288

11 Data Structure 291


Arrays292
Records298
Linked Lists 301
End-Chapter Materials 314
Practice Set 315

12 Abstract Data Types 317


Background318
Stacks320
Queues326
General Linear Lists 331
Trees337
Graphs343
End-Chapter Materials 344
Practice Set 346

13 File Structure 349


Introduction350
Sequential Files 350
Indexed Files 354
Hashed Files 355
Directories360

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viii  ontents
C

Text versus Binary 362


End-Chapter Materials 363
Practice Set 364

14 Databases 369
Introduction370
Database Architecture 372
Database Models 373
The Relational Database Model 374
Database Design 381
Other Database Models 385
End-Chapter Materials 386
Practice Set 388

15 Data Compression 391


Introduction392
Lossless Compression Methods 392
Lossy Compression Methods 400
End-Chapter Materials 406
Practice Set 407

16 Security 411
Introduction412
Confidentiality415
Other Aspects of Security 428
Firewalls442
End-Chapter Materials 445
Practice Set 447

17 Theory of Computation 451


Simple Language 452
The Turing Machine 456
Gödel Numbers 463
The Halting Problem 464
The Complexity of Problems 467
End-Chapter Materials 469
Practice Set 470

18 Artificial Intelligence 473


Introduction474
Knowledge Representation 475
Expert Systems 485
Perception487

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents
 ix

Searching494
Neural Networks 498
End-Chapter Materials 501
Practice Set 503

19 Introduction to Social Media 507


Introduction508
Facebook508
Twitter514
End-Chapter Materials 521
Practice Set 522

20 Social and Ethical Issues 525


Ethical Principles 526
Intellectual Property 527
Privacy528
Computer Crimes 528
Hackers530
End-Chapter Materials 530
Practice Set 531

A Unicode 533
Planes534
ASCII  535

B Unified Modeling Language (UML) 539


The User View 540
The Structural View 541
The Behavioral View 543
The Implementation View 550

C Pseudocode 553
Components554

D Structure Chart 557


Structure Chart Symbols 557
Reading Structure Charts 560
Rules of Structure Charts 560

E Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits  563


Boolean Algebra 563
Logic Circuits 574

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x  ontents
C

F Examples of Programs in C, C++, and Java 581


Programs in C Language  581
Programs in C++ Language 584
Programs in Java Language  587

G Mathematical Review 591


Exponent and Logarithm 591
Modular Arithmetic 595
Discrete Cosine Transform 599

H Error Detection and Correction 601


Introduction601
Block Coding 603
Linear Block Codes 606
Cyclic Codes 610
Checksum613

I Addition and Subtraction for


Sign-and-Magnitude Integers 617
Operations on Integers 617

J Addition and Subtraction for Reals 621


Operations on Reals 621

Acronyms 625

Glossary 629

Index 669

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Preface
Computers play a large part in our everyday lives and will continue to do so in the future.
Computer science is a young discipline that is evolving and progressing. Computer net-
works have connected people from far-flung points of the globe. Virtual reality is creating
three-dimensional images that amaze the eyes. Space exploration owes part of its success
to computers. Computer-generated special effects have changed the movie industry.
Computers have played important roles in genetics.

Audience
This book is written for both academic and professional audience. The book can be used
as a self-study guide for interested professionals. As a textbook, it can be used for a one-­
semester or one-quarter course. It is designed as the first course in computer science. This
book is designed for a CS0 course based on the recommendations of the Association of
Computing Machinery (ACM). It covers all areas of computer science in breadth. The
book, totally or partially, can also be used in other disciplines where the students need to
have a bird’s-eye view approach to the computer science.

Changes in the fourth edition


I have made several categories of changes in this edition.

Revised chapters and appendices


Minor changes have been made to almost all the chapters. Two new chapters have been
added (Chapters 19 and 20). Some materials have been removed from Chapter 4,
expanded and inserted as two new appendices (Appendices I and J).

Organization
The book is made of 20 chapters and 10 appendices.

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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xii  reface
P

Chapters
Chapters are intended to provide the basic materials. However, not all chapters are needed
for every audience. The professor who teaches the course can decide which chapters to
use. We give guidance below.

Appendices
The appendices are intended to provide a quick reference or review of materials needed to
understand the concepts discussed in the book. There are ten appendices that can be used
by the students for reference and study.

Acronyms
The book contains a list of acronyms for finding the corresponding terms quickly.

Glossary
The book contains an extensive glossary giving full explanations of the terms used in the
book.

Pedagogy
Several pedagogical features of this text are designed to make it particularly easy for
students to understand the materials.

Visual approach
The book presents highly technical subject matter without complex formulas by using a
balance of text and figures. More than 400 figures accompanying the text provide a visual
and intuitive opportunity for understanding the material. Figures are particularly
important in explaining the relationship between components of a whole. For many
students, these concepts are more easily grasped visually than verbally.

Highlighted points
I have repeated important concepts in boxes for quick reference and immediate attention.

Examples and applications


Whenever appropriate, I have included examples that illustrate the concepts introduced
in the text.

Algorithms
The inclusion of algorithms in the text helps students with problem solving and
programming.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface
 xiii

Unified Modeling Language (UML)


Throughout the book I have used UML diagrams to make students familiar with this tool,
which is becoming the de facto standard in the industry.

End-of-chapter materials
Each chapter ends with a set of materials that includes the following:
Recommended reading
This section gives a brief list of references relative to the chapter. The references can be
used to quickly find the corresponding literature.
Key terms
The new terms used in each chapter are listed at the end of the chapter and their definitions
are included in the glossary.
Summary
Each chapter ends with a summary of the material covered by that chapter. The summary
consolidates the important learning points in one place for ease of access by students.

Practice set
Each chapter includes a practice set designed to reinforce salient concepts and encourage
students to apply them. It consists of three parts: quizzes, questions, and problems.
Quizzes
Quizzes, which are posted on the book website, provide quick concept checking. Students
can take these quizzes to check their understanding of the materials. The feedback to the
students’ responses is given immediately.
Questions
This section contains simple questions about the concepts discussed in the book. Answers
to the odd-numbered questions are posted on the book website to be checked by the
student.
Problems
This section contains more difficult problems that need a deeper understanding of the
materials discussed in the chapter. I strongly recommend that the student trys to solve all
of these problems. Answers to the odd-numbered problems are also posted on the book
website to be checked by the student.

Professor resources
The book contains complete resources for professors who teach the course. They can be
downloaded from the book site. They include:

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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xiv  reface
P

Presentations
The site includes a set of colorful and animated PowerPoint presentations for teaching the
course.
Solutions to practice set
Solutions to all questions and problems are provided on the book website for the use of
professors who teach the course.

Student resources
The book contains complete student resources on the book website. They include:
Quizzes
There are quizzes at the end of chapters that can be taken by the students. Students are
encouraged to take these quizzes to test their general understanding of the materials
presented in the corresponding chapter.
Solutions to odd-numbered practice sets
Solutions to all odd-number questions and problems are provided on the book website for
the use of students.

How to use the book


The chapters in the book are organized to provide a great deal of flexibility. I suggest the
following:
❑❑ Materials provided in Chapters 1 to 8 are essential to understand the rest of the book.
❑❑ Materials provided in Chapters 9 to 14 can be taught if the time allows. They can be
skipped in a quarter system.
❑❑ Chapters 15 to 20 can be taught at the discretion of the professor and the majors of
students.

Acknowledgments
It is obvious that the development of a book of this scope needs the support of many
people.

Peer reviewers
I would like to acknowledge the contributions from peer reviewers to the development of
the book. These reviewers are:

Sam Ssemugabi, UNISA Steve Maybank, Birbeck College


Ronald Chikati, Botswana Accountancy Mario Kolberg, University of Stirling
College Colin Price, University of Worcester
Alex Dandadzi, University of Limpopo Boris Cogan, London Metropolitan
Tom Verhoeff, Eindhoven University of University
Technology Thomas Mandl, University of Hildesheim
Stefan Gruner, University of Pretoria Daphne Becker, University of South Africa
Harin Sellahwea, University of Lubna Fekry Abdulhai and Osama
Buckingham Abulnaja, King Abdulaziz University
John Newman, University of Wales Katie Atkinson, University of Liverpool

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface
 xv

Publisher staff
Special thanks go to the staff of the publisher.
Andrew Ashwin Jennifer Grene
Annabel Ainscow Phillipa Davidson-Blake

Behrouz A. Forouzan
Los Angeles, CA.
January 2018

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


Trademarks
Throughout the text we have used several trademarks. Rather than insert a trademark
symbol with each mention of the trademark name, we acknowledge the trademarks here
and state that they are used with no intention of infringing upon them. Other product
names, trademarks, and registered trademarks are the property of their respective
owners.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction

The phrase computer science has a very broad meaning today. However, in this book, we
define the phrase as ‘issues related to the computer’. This introductory chapter first tries
to find out what a computer is, then investigates other issues directly related to comput-
ers. We look first at the Turing model as a mathematical and philosophical definition of
computation. We then show how today’s computers are based on the von Neumann
model. The chapter ends with a brief history of this culture-changing device . . . the
computer.

Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
❑❑ Define the Turing model of a computer.
❑❑ Define the von Neumann model of a computer.
❑❑ Describe the three components of a computer: hardware, data, and software.
❑❑ List topics related to computer hardware.
❑❑ List topics related to data.
❑❑ List topics related to software.
❑❑ Give a short history of computers.

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2 Introduction

1.1 TURING MODEL


The idea of a universal computational device was first described by Alan Turing in 1936.
He proposed that all computation could be performed by a special kind of a machine, now
called a Turing machine. Although Turing presented a mathematical description of such a
machine, he was more interested in the philosophical definition of computation than in
building the actual machine. He based the model on the actions that people perform
when involved in computation. He abstracted these actions into a model for a computa-
tional machine that has really changed the world.

1.1.1 Data processors


Before discussing the Turing model, let us define a computer as a data processor. Using
this definition, a computer acts as a black box that accepts input data, processes the data,
and creates output data (Figure 1.1). Although this model can define the functionality of
a computer today, it is too general. In this model, a pocket calculator is also a computer
(which it is, in a literal sense).

Figure 1.1 A single-purpose computing machine

Input data Computer Output data

Another problem with this model is that it does not specify the type of processing, or
whether more than one type of processing is possible. In other words, it is not clear how
many types or sets of operations a machine based on this model can perform. Is it a
­specific-purpose machine or a general-purpose machine?
This model could represent a specific-purpose computer (or processor) that is de-
signed to do a single job, such as controlling the temperature of a building or controlling
the fuel usage in a car. However, computers, as the term is used today, are general-purpose
machines. They can do many different types of tasks. This implies that we need to change
this model into the Turing model to be able to reflect the actual computers of today.

1.1.2 Programmable data processors


The Turing model is a better model for a general-purpose computer. This model adds an
extra element to the specific computing machine: the program. A program is a set of
instructions that tells the computer what to do with data. Figure 1.2 shows the Turing
model.
In the Turing model, the output data depends on the combination of two factors: the
input data and the program. With the same input data, we can generate different output
if we change the program. Similarly, with the same program, we can generate different

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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1.1 Turing Model 3

Figure 1.2 A computer based on the Turing model: programmable data processor

Program

Input data Computer Output data

outputs if we change the input data. Finally, if the input data and the program remain the
same, the output should be the same. Let us look at three cases.

Same program, different input data


Figure 1.3 shows the same sorting program with different input data. Although the
program is the same, the outputs are different, because different input data is processed.

Figure 1.3 The same program, different data

Program Sort

3, 12, 8, 22 Computer 3, 8, 12, 22


Input data Output data

Program Sort

14, 6, 8, 12 Computer 6, 8, 12, 14


Input data Output data

Same input data, different programs


Figure 1.4 shows the same input data with different programs. Each program makes the
computer perform different operations on the input data. The first program sorts the data,
the second adds the data, and the third finds the smallest number.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
4 Introduction

Figure 1.4 The same data, different programs

Program Sort

3, 12, 8, 22 Computer 3, 8, 12, 22


Input data Output data

Program Add

3, 12, 8, 22 Computer 45
Input data Output data

Program Find
smallest

3, 12, 8, 22 Computer 3
Input data Output data

Same input data, same program


We expect the same result each time if both input data and the program are the same, of
course. In other words, when the same program is run with the same input data, we
expect the same output.

1.1.3 The universal Turing machine


A universal Turing machine, a machine that can do any computation if the appropriate
program is provided, was the first description of a modern computer. It can be proved that
a very powerful computer and a universal Turing machine can compute the same thing.
We need only provide the data and the program—the description of how to do the com-
putation—to either machine. In fact, a universal Turing machine is capable of computing
anything that is computable.

1.2 VON NEUMANN MODEL


Computers built on the Turing universal machine store data in their memory. Around
1944–1945, John von Neumann proposed that, since program and data are logically the
same, programs should also be stored in the memory of a computer.

1.2.1 Four subsystems


Computers built on the von Neumann model divide the computer hardware into four
subsystems: memory, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and input/output (Figure 1.5).

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1.2 Von Neumann Model 5

Figure 1.5 The Von Neumann model

Computer

Input / output

Arithmetic logic
Input unit (ALU) Output
data data
Memory

Control unit

Memory
Memory is the storage area. This is where programs and data are stored during processing.
We discuss the reasons for storing programs and data later in the chapter.

Arithmetic logic unit


The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is where calculation and logical operations take place.
For a computer to act as a data processor, it must be able to do arithmetic operations on
data (such as adding a list of numbers). It should also be able to do logical operations on
data, as we will see in Chapter 4.

Control unit
The control unit controls the operations of the memory, ALU, and the input/output
subsystem.

Input / output
The input subsystem accepts input data and the program from outside the computer,
while the output subsystem sends the result of processing to the outside world. The defi-
nition of the input/output subsystem is very broad: it also includes secondary storage
devices such as disk or tape that stores data and programs for processing. When a disk
stores data that results from processing, it is considered an output device: when it reads
data from the disk, it is considered an input device.

1.2.2 The stored program concept


The von Neumann model states that the program must be stored in memory. This is
totally different from the architecture of early computers in which only the data was
stored in memory: the programs for their task were implemented by manipulating a set of
switches or by changing the wiring system.
The memory of modern computers hosts both a program and its corresponding data.
This implies that both the data and programs should have the same format, because they
are stored in memory. In fact, they are stored as binary patterns in memory—a sequence
of 0s and 1s.

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6 Introduction

1.2.3 Sequential execution of instructions


A program in the von Neumann model is made of a finite number of instructions. In this
model, the control unit fetches one instruction from memory, decodes it, then executes
it. In other words, the instructions are executed one after another. Of course, one
instruction may request the control unit to jump to some previous or following
instruction, but this does not mean that the instructions are not executed sequentially.
Sequential execution of a program was the initial requirement of a computer based on
the von Neumann model. Today’s computers execute programs in the order that is the
most efficient.

1.3 COMPUTER COMPONENTS


We can think of a computer as being made up of three components: computer hardware,
data, and computer software.

1.3.1 Computer hardware


Computer hardware today has four components under the von Neumann model, although
we can have different types of memory, different types of input/output subsystems, and
so on. We discuss computer hardware in more detail in Chapter 5.

1.3.2 Data
The von Neumann model clearly defines a computer as a data processing machine that
accepts the input data, processes it, and outputs the result.

Storing data
The von Neumann model does not define how data must be stored in a computer. If a
computer is an electronic device, the best way to store data is in the form of an electrical
signal, specifically its presence or absence. This implies that a computer can store data in
one of two states.
Obviously, the data we use in daily life is not just in one of two states. For example,
our numbering system uses digits that can take one of ten states (0 to 9). We cannot (as
yet) store this type of information in a computer: it needs to be changed to another system
that uses only two states (0 and 1). We also need to be able to process other types of data
(text, image, audio, video). These also cannot be stored in a computer directly, but need to
be changed to the appropriate form (0s and 1s).
In Chapter 3, we will learn how to store different types of data as a binary pattern, a
sequence of 0s and 1s. In Chapter 4, we show how data is manipulated, as a binary pat-
tern, inside a computer.

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1.3 Computer Components 7

Organizing data
Although data should be stored only in one form inside a computer, a binary pattern, data
outside a computer can take many forms. In addition, computers (and the notion of data
processing) have created a new field of study known as data organization, which asks the
question: can we organize our data into different entities and formats before storing them
inside a computer? Today, data is not treated as a flat sequence of information. Instead,
data is organized into small units, small units are organized into larger units, and so on. We
will look at data from this point of view in Chapters 11–14.

1.3.3 Computer software


The main feature of the Turing or von Neumann models is the concept of the program.
Although early computers did not store the program in the computer’s memory, they did
use the concept of programs. Programming those early computers meant changing the
wiring systems or turning a set of switches on or off. Programming was therefore a task
done by an operator or engineer before the actual data processing began.

Programs must be stored


In the von Neumann model programs are stored in the computer’s memory. Not only do
we need memory to hold data, but we also need memory to hold the program
(Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Program and data in memory

Program

Data

Memory

A sequence of instructions
Another requirement of the model is that the program must consist of a sequence of
instructions. Each instruction operates on one or more data items. Thus, an instruction can
change the effect of a previous instruction. For example, Figure 1.7 shows a program that
inputs two numbers, adds them, and prints the result. This program consists of four
individual instructions.

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8 Introduction

Figure 1.7 A program made of instructions

1. Input the first number into memory.


2. Input the second number into memory.
3. Add the two together and store the result in memory.
4. Output the result.

Program

We might ask why a program must be composed of instructions. The answer is reusability.
Today, computers do millions of tasks. If the program for each task was an independent
entity without anything in common with other programs, programming would be diffi-
cult. The Turing and von Neumann models make programming easier by defining the
different instructions that can be used by computers. A programmer can then combine
these instructions to make any number of programs. Each program can be a different
combination of different instructions.

Algorithms
The requirement for a program to consist of a sequence of instructions made programming
possible, but it brought another dimension to using a computer. A programmer must not
only learn the task performed by each instruction, but also learn how to combine these
instructions to do a particular task. Looking at this issue differently, a programmer must
first solve the problem in a step-by-step manner, then try to find the appropriate instruction
(or series of instructions) to implement those steps. This step-by-step solution is called an
algorithm. Algorithms play a very important role in computer science and are discussed in
Chapter 8.

Languages
At the beginning of the computer age there was only one computer language, machine
language. Programmers wrote instructions (using binary patterns) to solve a problem.
However, as programs became larger, writing long programs using these patterns became
tedious. Computer scientists came up with the idea of using symbols to represent binary
patterns, just as people use symbols (words) for commands in daily life. Of course, the
symbols used in daily life are different from those used in computers. So the concept of
computer languages was born. A natural language such as English is rich and has many
rules to combine words correctly: a computer language, on the other hand, has a more
limited number of symbols and also a limited number of words. We will study computer
languages in Chapter 9.

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1.4 History 9

Software engineering
Something that was not defined in the von Neumann model is software engineering,
which is the design and writing of structured programs. Today it is not acceptable just to
write a program that does a task: the program must follow strict rules and principles. We
discuss these principles, collectively known as software engineering, in Chapter 10.

Operating systems
During the evolution of computers, scientists became aware that there was a series of
instructions common to all programs. For example, instructions to tell a computer where
to receive data and where to send data are needed by almost all programs. It is more
efficient to write these instructions only once for the use of all programs. Thus the concept
of the operating system emerged. An operating system originally worked as a manager to
facilitate access to the computer’s components by a program, although today operating
systems do much more. We will learn about them in Chapter 7.

1.4 HISTORY
In this section we briefly review the history of computing and computers. We divide this
history into three periods.

1.4.1 Mechanical machines (before 1930)


During this period, several computing machines were invented that bear little resemblance
to the modern concept of a computer.
❑❑ In the seventeenth century, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher,
invented Pascaline, a mechanical calculator for addition and subtraction operations.
In the twentieth century, when Niklaus Wirth invented a structured programming
language, he called it Pascal to honor the inventor of the first mechanical calculator.
❑❑ In the late seventeenth century, German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz invented a
more sophisticated mechanical calculator that could do multiplication and division as
well as addition and subtraction. It was called the Leibniz Wheel.
❑❑ The first machine that used the idea of storage and programming was the Jacquard
loom, invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The loom used punched cards (like a stored program) to control the raising of the
warp threads in the manufacture of textiles.
❑❑ In 1823, Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine, which could do more than
simple arithmetic operations—it could solve polynomial equations, too. Later, he in-
vented a machine called the Analytical Engine that, to some extent, parallels the idea
of modern computers. It had four components: a mill (corresponding to a modern
ALU), a store (memory), an operator (control unit), and output (input/output).
❑❑ In 1890, Herman Hollerith, working at the US Census Bureau, designed and built
a programmer machine that could automatically read, tally, and sort data stored on
punched cards.

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10 Introduction

1.4.2 The birth of electronic computers (1930–1950)


Between 1930 and 1950, several computers were invented by scientists who could be
considered the pioneers of the electronic computer industry.

Early electronic computers


The early computers of this period did not store the program in memory—all were
programmed externally. Five computers were prominent during these years:
❑❑ The first special-purpose computer that encoded information electrically was invented by
John V. Atanasoff and his assistant Clifford Berry in 1939. It was called the ABC (Atana-
soff Berry Computer) and was specifically designed to solve a system of linear equations.
❑❑ At the same time, a German mathematician called Konrad Zuse designed a general-
purpose machine called Z1.
❑❑ In the 1930s, the US Navy and IBM sponsored a project at Harvard University under
the direction of Howard Aiken to build a huge computer called Mark I. This comput-
er used both electrical and mechanical components.
❑❑ In England, Alan Turing invented a computer called Colossus that was designed to
break the German Enigma code.
❑❑ The first general-purpose, totally electronic computer was made by John Mauchly and
J. Presper Eckert and was called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calcu-
lator). It was completed in 1946. It used 18 000 vacuum tubes, was 100 feet long by
10 feet high, and weighed 30 tons.

Computers based on the von Neumann model


The preceding five computers used memory only for storing data, and were programmed
externally using wires or switches. John von Neumann proposed that the program and the
data should be stored in memory. That way, every time we use a computer to do a new
task, we need only change the program instead of rewiring the machine or turning
hundreds of switches on and off.
The first computer based on von Neumann’s ideas was made in 1950 at the Universi-
ty of Pennsylvania and was called EDVAC. At the same time, a similar computer called
EDSAC was built by Maurice Wilkes at Cambridge University in England.

1.4.3 Computer generations (1950–present)


Computers built after 1950 more or less follow the von Neumann model. They have
become faster, smaller, and cheaper, but the principle is almost the same. Historians divide
this period into generations, with each generation witnessing some major change in
hardware or software (but not in the model).

First generation
The first generation (roughly 1950–1959) is characterized by the emergence of commercial
computers. During this time, computers were used only by professionals. They were
locked in rooms with access limited only to the operator or computer specialist. Computers

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1.5 Computer Science as a Discipline 11

were bulky and used vacuum tubes as electronic switches. At this time, computers were
affordable only by big organizations.

Second generation
Second-generation computers (roughly 1959–1965) used transistors instead of vacuum
tubes. This reduced the size of computers, as well as their cost, and made them affordable
to small and medium-size corporations. Two high-level programming languages,
FORTRAN and COBOL (see Chapter 9), were invented and made programming easier.
These two languages separated the programming task from the computer operation task.
A civil engineer, for example could write a FORTRAN program to solve a problem
without being involved in the electronic details of computer architecture.

Third generation
The invention of the integrated circuit (transistors, wiring, and other components on a
single chip) reduced the cost and size of computers even further. Minicomputers appeared
on the market. Canned programs, popularly known as software packages, became available.
A small corporation could buy a package, for example for accounting, instead of writing
its own program. A new industry, the software industry, was born. This generation lasted
roughly from 1965 to 1975.

Fourth generation
The fourth generation (approximately 1975–1985) saw the appearance of m ­ icrocomputers.
The first desktop calculator, the Altair 8800, became available in 1975. Advances in the
electronics industry allowed whole computer subsystems to fit on a single circuit board.
This generation also saw the emergence of computer networks (see Chapter 6).

Fifth generation
This open-ended generation started in 1985. It has witnessed the appearance of laptop
and palmtop computers, improvements in secondary storage media (CD-ROM, DVD, and
so on), the use of multimedia, and the phenomenon of virtual reality.

1.5 COMPUTER SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE


With the invention of computers, a new discipline has evolved: computer science. Like any
other discipline, computer science has now divided into several areas. We can divide these
areas into two broad categories: systems areas and applications areas. Systems areas cover
those areas that directly related to the creation of hardware and software, such as computer
architecture, computer networking, security issues, operating systems, algorithms, programming
languages, and software engineering. Applications areas cover those that are related to the
use of computers, such as databases and artificial intelligence. This book is a breadth-first
approach to all of these areas. After reading the book, the reader should have enough
information to select the desired area of specialty.

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12 Introduction

1.6 OUTLINE OF THE COURSE


After this introductory chapter, the book is divided into five parts.

1.6.1 Part I: Data representation and operation


This part includes Chapters 2, 3, and 4. Chapter 2 discusses number systems, how a
quantity can be represented using symbols. Chapter 3 discusses how different data is
stored inside the computer. Chapter 4 discusses some primitive operations on bits.

1.6.2 Part II: Computer hardware


This part includes Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5 gives a general idea of computer hardware,
discussing different computer organizations. Chapter 6 shows how individual computers
are connected to make computer networks, and internetworks (internets). In particular,
this chapter explores some subjects related to the Internet and its applications.

1.6.3 Part III: Computer software


This part includes Chapters 7, 8, 9, and 10. Chapter 7 discusses operating systems, the
system software that controls access to the hardware by users—either human or application
programs. Chapter 8 shows how problem solving is reduced to writing an algorithm for
the problem. Chapter 9 takes a journey through the list of contemporary programming
languages. Finally, Chapter 10 is a review of software engineering, the engineering approach
to the development of software.

1.6.4 Part IV: Data organization and abstraction


This part complements Part I. In computer science, atomic data is collected into records,
files, and databases. Data abstraction allows the programmer to create abstract notions
about data. Part IV includes Chapters 11, 12, 13, and 14. Chapter 11 discusses data
structure, collecting data of the same or different type under one category. Chapter 12
discusses abstract data types. Chapter 13 shows how different file structures can be used
for different purposes. Finally, Chapter 14 discusses databases.

1.6.5 Part V: Advanced topics


Part V gives an overview of advanced topics, topics that students of computer science will
encounter later in their education. This part covers Chapters 15, 16, 17, and 18. ­Chapter 15
discusses data compression, which is prevalent in today’s data communications. Chapter 16
explores some issues to do with security, which is becoming more and more important
when we communicate over insecure channels. Chapter 17 discusses the theory of compu-
tation: what can and cannot be computed. Finally Chapter 18 gives some idea of artificial
intelligence, a topic wih day-to-day challenges in computer science.

1.6.6 Part VI: Social media and social Issues


Part VI briefly discusses social media and social issues, two topics that students of com-
puter science may be interested to explore.

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1.7 End-Chapter Materials 13

1.7 END-CHAPTER MATERIALS


1.7.1 Recommended reading
For more details about the subjects discussed in this chapter, the following books are
recommended:
❑❑ Schneider, G. M. and Gersting, J. L. Invitation to Computer Science, Boston, MA: Course
Technology, 2004
❑❑ Dale, N. and Lewis, J. Computer Science Illuminated, Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2004
❑❑ Patt, Y. and Patel, S. Introduction to Computing Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004

1.7.2 Key terms


algorithm 8 memory 5
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) 5 microcomputer 11
computer languages 8 operating system 9
control unit 5 output data 2
data processor 2 program 2
input data 2 structured programs 9
input/output subsystem 5 software engineering 9
instruction 6 Turing machine 2
integrated circuit 11 Turing model 1
logical operation 5 von Neumann model 1

1.7.3 Summary
❑❑ The idea of a universal computational device was first put forward by Alan Turing
in 1936. He proposed that all computations can be performed by a special kind of a
machine, now called a Turing machine.
❑❑ The von Neumann model defines a computer as four subsystems: memory, arithmetic
logic unit, control unit, and input/output. The von Neumann model states that the
program must be stored in memory.
❑❑ We can think of a computer as made up of three components: computer hardware,
data, and computer software.
❑❑ The history of computing and computers can be divided into three periods: the
period of mechanical machines (before 1930), the period of electronic computers
­(1930–1950), and the period that includes the five modern computer generations.
❑❑ With the invention of computers a new discipline has evolved, computer science, which
is now divided into several areas.

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14 Introduction

1.8 PRACTICE SET


1.8.1 Quizzes
A set of interactive quizzes for this chapter can be found on the book’s website. It is
strongly recommended that the student takes the quizzes to check his/her understanding
of the materials before continuing with the practice set.

1.8.2 Review questions


Q1-1. Define a computer based on the Turing model.
Q1-2. Define a computer based on the von Neumann model.
Q1-3. What is the role of a program in a computer that is based on the Turing model?
Q1-4. What is the role of a program in a computer based on the von Neumann model?
Q1-5. What are the various subsystems of a computer?
Q1-6. What is the function of the memory subsystem in a computer?
Q1-7. What is the function of the ALU subsystem in a computer?
Q1-8. What is the function of the control unit subsystem in a computer?
Q1-9. What is the function of the input/output subsystem in a computer?
Q1-10. Briefly describe the five generations of computers.

1.8.3 Problems
P1-1. Explain why a computer cannot solve a problem for which there is no solution
outside the computer.
P1-2. If a small cheap computer can do the same thing as a large expensive computer,
why do people need to have a large one?
P1-3. Do some research and find out whether the Pascaline calculator is a computer
according to the Turing model.
P1-4. Do some research and find out whether Leibnitz’ Wheel is a computer according
to the Turing model.
P1-5. Do some research and find out whether the Jacquard Loom is a computer accord-
ing to the Turing model.
P1-6. Do some research and find out whether Babbage’s Analytical Engine is a com-
puter according to the von Neumann model.
P1-7. Do some research about the ABC computer and find out whether this computer
followed the von Neumann model.
P1-8. Do some research and find out in which computer generation keyboards
originated.

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CHAPTER 2
Number Systems

This chapter is a prelude to Chapters 3 and 4. In Chapter 3 we will show how data is
stored inside the computer. In Chapter 4 we will show how logic and arithmetic opera-
tions are performed on data. This chapter is a preparation for understanding the contents
of Chapters 3 and 4. Readers who know about number systems can skip this chapter and
move on to Chapter 3 without loss of continuity. Note that the number systems discussed
in this chapter are ‘paper and pencil representations’: we show how these numbers are
stored in a computer in Chapter 3.

Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
❑❑ Understand the concept of number systems.
❑❑ Distinguish between nonpositional and positional number systems.
❑❑ Describe the decimal system (base 10).
❑❑ Describe the binary system (base 2).
❑❑ Describe the hexadecimal system (base 16).
❑❑ Describe the octal system (base 8).
❑❑ Convert a number in binary, octal, or hexadecimal to a number in the decimal system.
❑❑ Convert a number in the decimal system to a number in binary, octal, or h
­ exadecimal.
❑❑ Convert a number in binary to octal and vice versa.
❑❑ Convert a number in binary to hexadecimal and vice versa.
❑❑ Find the number of digits needed in each system to represent a particular value.

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16 Number Systems

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A number system (or numeral system) defines how a number can be represented using
­distinct symbols. A number can be represented differently in different systems. For exam-
ple, the two numbers (2A)16 and (52)8 both refer to the same quantity, (42)10, but their
representations are different. This is the same as using the words cheval (French) and
equus (Latin) to refer to the same entity, a horse.
As we use symbols (characters) to create words in a language, we use symbols (digits)
to represent numbers. However, we know that the number of symbols (characters) in any
language is limited. We need to repeat characters and combine them to create words. It is
the same for numbers: we have a limited number of symbols (digits) to represent num-
bers, which means that the digits need to be repeated.
Several number systems have been used in the past and can be categorized into two
groups: positional and nonpositional systems. Our main goal is to discuss the positional
number systems, but we also give examples of nonpositional systems.

2.2 POSITIONAL NUMBER SYSTEMS


In a positional number system, the position a symbol occupies in the number determines
the value it represents. In this system, a number represented as:
6 (SK21 … S2 S1 S0. S21 S22 … S2L )b
has the value of:

n 5 6 SK21 3 bK21 1… 1 S1 3 b1 1 S0 3 b0

1 S21 3 b21 1 S22 3 b22 1 … 1 S2L 3 b2L

in which S is the set of symbols, b is the base (or radix), which is equal to the total num-
ber of the symbols in the set S, and SK and SL are symbols in the whole and fraction parts
of the number. Note that we have used an expression that can be extended from the right
or from the left. In other words, the power of b can be 0 to K 2 1 in one direction and
21 to 2L in the other direction. The terms with non negative powers of b are related to
the integral part of the number, while the terms with negative power of b are related to
the fractional part of the number. The 6 sign shows that the number can be either posi-
tive or negative. We will study several positional number systems in this chapter.

2.2.1 The decimal system (base 10)


The first positional number system we discuss in this chapter is the decimal system. The
word decimal is derived from the Latin root decem (ten). In this system the base b 5 10
and we use ten symbols to represent a number. The set of symbols is S 5 {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9}. As we know, the symbols in this system are often referred to as decimal digits
or just digits. In this chapter, we use 6 to show that a number can be positive or negative,
but remember that these signs are not stored in computers—computers handle the sign
differently, as we discuss in Chapter 3.

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2.2 Positional Number Systems 17

Computers store positive and negative numbers differently.

In the decimal system, a number is written as:

6 (SK21 … S2 S1 S0. S21 S22 … S2L )10

but for simplicity, we often drop the parentheses, the base, and the plus sign (if the num-
ber is positive). For example, we write the number 1(552.23)10 as 552.23—the base and
plus signs are implicit.

Integers
An integer (an integral number with no fractional part) in the decimal system is familiar
to all of us—we use integers in our daily life. In fact, we have used them so much that they
are intuitive. We represent an integer as 6 SK–1 … S1 S0. The value is calculated as:

N5± SK21 3 10K21 1 SK22 3 10K22 1 … 1 S2 3 102 1 S1 3 101 1 S0 3 100

in which Si is a digit, b 5 10 is the base, and K is the number of digits.


Another way to show an integer in a number system is to use place values, which are
powers of 10 (100, 101, …, 10K21) for decimal numbers. Figure 2.1 shows an integer in the
decimal system using place values.

Figure 2.1 Place value for an integer in decimal system

10K−1 10K−2 102 101 100 Place values


+
– SK−1 SK−2 S2 S1 S0 Number

N= +
– SK−1 10 + SK−2 10
K−1 K−2
+ + S2 102 + S1 101 + S0 100 Values
+

+
+

Example 2.1
The following shows the place values for the integer 1224 in the decimal system:

102 101 100 Place values


2 2 4 Number
N 5 1 2 3 102 1 2 3 101 1 4 3 100 Values

Note that the digit in position 1 has the value 20, but the same digit in position 2 has the
value 200. Also note that we normally drop the plus sign, but it is implicit.

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18 Number Systems

Example 2.2
The following shows the place values for the decimal number –7508. We have used 1, 10,
100, and 1000 instead of powers of 10:

1000 100 10 1 Place values


7 5 0 8 Number
N 5 2 (7 3 1000 1 5 3 100 1 0 3 10 1 8 3 1) Values

Maximum value
Sometimes we need to know the maximum value of a decimal integer that can be repre-
sented by K digits. The answer is Nmax 5 10K 2 1. For example, if K 5 5, then the maxi-
mum value is Nmax 5 105 2 1 5 99 999.

Reals
A real (a number with a fractional part) in the decimal system is also familiar. For example,
we use this system to show dollars and cents ($23.40). We can represent a real as 6 SK–1 …
S1 S0 · S–1 … S–L. The value is calculated as:

Integral part Fractional part

R 5 6 SK21 3 10K21 1 … 1 S1 3 101 1 S0 3 100 1 S21 3 1021 1 … 1 S2L 3 102L

in which S1 is a digit, b 5 10 is the base, K is the number of digits in the integral part, and
L is the number of digits in the fractional part. The decimal point we use in our
representation separates the fractional part from the integral part.

Example 2.3
The following shows the place values for the real number 124.13:

101 100 1021 1022 Place values


2 4 · 1 3 Number
R51 2 3 10 1 431 1 1 3 0.1 1 3 3 0.01 Values

2.2.2 The binary system (base 2)


The second positional number system we discuss in this chapter is the binary sys-
tem. The word binary is derived from the Latin root bini (or two by two). In this
system the base b 5 2 and we use only two symbols, S 5 {0, 1}. The symbols in this
system are often referred to as binary digits or bits (binary digit). As we will see in
Chapter 3, data and programs are stored in the computer using binary patterns, a
string of bits. This is because the computer is made of electronic switches that can
have only two states, on and off. The bit 1 represents one of these two states and the
bit 0 the other.

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2.2 Positional Number Systems 19

Integers
We can represent an integer as 6 (SK–1 … S1 S0)2. The value is calculated as:

N 5 6 SK21 3 2K21 1 SK22 3 2K22 1 … 1 S2 3 22 1 S1 3 21 1 S0 3 20

in which Si is a digit, b 5 2 is the base, and K is the number of bits. Another way to show
a binary number is to use place values (20, 21, … 2K21). Figure 2.2 shows a number in the
binary number system using place values:

Figure 2.2 Place values in an integer in the binary system

2K−1 2K−2 22 21 20 Place values

+ SK−1 SK−2 S2 S1 S0 Number


N= – SK−1 2
+ K−1
+ SK−2 2K−2 + + S2 22 + S1 21 + S0 20 Values
+

+
+

Example 2.4
The following shows that the number (11001)2 in binary is the same as 25 in decimal. The
subscript 2 shows that the base is 2:

24 23 22 21 20 Place values
1 1 0 0 1 Number
N5 132 4 1 132 3 1 032 2 1 032 1 1 132 0
Decimal

Note that the equivalent decimal number is N 5 16 1 8 1 0 1 0 1 1 5 25.

Maximum value
The maximum value of a binary integer with K digits is Nmax 5 2K – 1. For example, if
K 5 5, then the maximum value is Nmax 5 25 – 1 5 31.

Reals
A real—a number with an optional fractional part—in the binary system can be made of
K bits on the left and L bits on the right, 6 (SK–1 … S1 S0 · S–1 … S–L)2. The value can be
calculated as:

Integral part · Fractional part


R56 SK21 3 2 K21
3 … 3 S1 3 2 3 S0 3 2 1 0 1 S21 3 221 1 … 1 S2L 3 22L

in which Si is a bit, b 5 2 is the base, K is the number of bits to the left, and L is the num-
ber of bits to the right of the decimal point. Note that K starts from 0, but L starts from
21. The highest power is K 2 1 and the lowest power is 2L.

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20 Number Systems

Example 2.5
The following shows that the number (101.11)2 in binary is equal to the number 5.75 in
decimal:

22 21 20 221 222 Place values


1 0 1 · 1 1 Number
R 5 132 2 1 032 1 1 132 0 1 132 21 1 132 22
Values

Note that the value in the decimal system is R 5 4 1 0 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.25 5 5.75.

2.2.3 The hexadecimal system (base 16)


Although the binary system is used to store data in computers, it is not convenient for
representation of numbers outside the computer, as a number in binary notation is much
longer than the corresponding number in decimal notation. However, the decimal system
does not show what is stored in the computer as binary directly—there is no obvious
relationship between the number of bits in binary and the number of decimal digits.
Conversion from one to the other is not fast, as we will see shortly.
To overcome this problem, two positional systems were devised: hexadecimal and
­octal. We first discuss the hexadecimal system, which is more common. The word hexadec-
imal is derived from the Greek root hex (six) and the Latin root decem (ten). To be consis-
tent with decimal and binary, it should really have been called sexadecimal, from the Latin
roots sex and decem. In this system the base b 5 16 and we use 16 symbols to represent a
number. The set of symbols is S 5 {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F}. Note that the
symbols A, B, C, D, E, F (uppercase or lowercase) are equivalent to 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and
15 respectively. The symbols in this system are often referred to as hexadecimal digits.

Integers
We can represent an integer as 6 SK–1 … S1 S0. The value is calculated as:

N 5 6 SK21 3 16K21 1 SK22 3 16K22 1 … 1 S2 3 162 1 S1 3 161 1 S0 3 160

in which Si is a digit, b 5 16 is the base, and K is the number of digits.


Another way to show a hexadecimal number is to use place values (160, 161, …, 16K 21).
Figure 2.3 shows a number in the hexadecimal number system using place values.

Figure 2.3 Place values in an integer in the hexadecimal system

16K−1 16K−2 162 161 160 Place values

+
– SK−1 SK−2 S2 S1 S0 Number

N= +
– SK−1 16 + SK−2 16
K−1 K−2
+ + S2 162 + S1 161 + S0 160 Values
+

+
+

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2.2 Positional Number Systems 21

Example 2.6
The following shows that the number (2AE)16 in hexadecimal is equivalent to 686 in
decimal:

162 161 160 Place values


2 A E Number
N 5 2 3 16 2 1 10 3 16 1 1 14 3 16 0
Values

Note that the value in the decimal system is N 5 512 1 160 1 14 5 686.

Maximum value
The maximum value of a hexadecimal integer with K digits is Nmax 5 16K – 1. For example,
if K 5 5, then the maximum value is Nmax 5 165 – 1 5 1 048 575.

Reals
Although a real number can be also represented in the hexadecimal system, it is not very
common.

2.2.4 The octal system (base 8)


The second system that was devised to show the equivalent of the binary system outside
the computer is the octal system. The word octal is derived from the Latin root octo
(eight). In this system the base b 5 8 and we use eight symbols to represent a number. The
set of symbols is S 5 {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. The symbols in this system are often referred
to as octal digits.

Integers
We can represent an integer as 6 SK–1 … S1 S0. The value is calculated as:

N 5 6 SK21 3 8K21 1 SK22 3 8K22 1 … 1 S2 3 82 1 S1 3 81 1 S0 3 80

in which Si is a digit, b 5 8 is the base, and K is the number of digits.


Another way to show an octal number is to use place values (80, 81, …, 8K21).­
Figure 2.4 shows a number in the octal number system using place values.

Figure 2.4 Place values in an integer in the octal system

8K−1 8K−2 82 81 80 Place values

+ SK−1 SK−2 S2 S1 S0 Number


N= +
– SK−1 8
K−1
+ SK−2 8K−2 + + S2 82 + S1 81 + S0 80 Values
+

+
+

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22 Number Systems

Example 2.7
The following shows that the number (1256)8 in octal is the same as 686 in decimal:

83 82 81 80 Place values
1 2 5 6 Number
N 5 1 3 83 1 2 3 82 1 5 3 81 1 6 3 80 Values

Note that the decimal number is N 5 512 1 128 1 40 1 6 5 686.

Maximum Value
The maximum value of an octal integer with K digits is Nmax 5 8K − 1. For example, if
K 5 5, then the maximum value is Nmax 5 85 − 1 5 32767.

Reals
Although a real number can be also represented in the octal system, it is not very common.

2.2.5 Summary of the four positional systems


Table 2.1 shows a summary of the four positional number systems discussed in this
chapter.
Table 2.1 Summary of the four positional number systems

System Base Symbols Examples

Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 2345.56

Binary 2 0, 1 (1001.11)2

Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (156.23)8

Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F (A2C.A1)16

Table 2.2 shows how the number 15 is represented with two digits in decimal, four digits
in binary, two digits in octal, and only one digit in hexadecimal. The hexadecimal repre-
sentation is definitely the shortest.

Table 2.2 Comparison of numbers in the four systems

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

2 10 2 2

3 11 3 3

4 100 4 4

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2.2 Positional Number Systems 23

Table 2.2 (Continued)

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

5 101 5 5

6 110 6 6

7 111 7 7

8 1000 10 8

9 1001 11 9

10 1010 12 A

11 1011 13 B

12 1100 14 C

13 1101 15 D

14 1110 16 E

15 1111 17 F

2.2.6 Conversion
We need to know how to convert a number in one system to the equivalent number in another
system. Since the decimal system is more familiar than the other systems, we first show how
to covert from any base to decimal. Then we show how to convert from decimal to any base.
Finally, we show how we can easily convert from binary to hexadecimal or octal and vice versa.

Any base to decimal conversion


This type of conversion is easy and fast. We multiply each digit with its place value in the
source system and add the results to get the number in the decimal system. Figure 2.5
shows the idea.

Figure 2.5 Converting other bases to decimal

Decimal point

SK−1 S1 S0 S−1 S−2 S−L Binary

bK−1 b1 b0 b−1 b−2 b−L Place values

SK−1 × bK−1 + + S0 × b0 + S0 × b0 + S−1× b−1 + S−2× b−2 + + S−L × b−L Multiplication

Integral Fraction Decimal

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24 Number Systems

Example 2.8
The following shows how to convert the binary number (110.11)2 to decimal: (110.11)2
5 6.75:

Binary 1 1 0 · 1 1
Place values 2 2
2 1
2 0
2 21
222
Partial results 4 1 2 1 0 1 0.5 1 0.25
Decimal: 6.75

Example 2.9
The following shows how to convert the hexadecimal number (1A.23)16 to decimal:

Hexadecimal 1 A · 2 3
Place values 16 1
16 0
16 21
1622
Partial result 16 1 10 1 0.125 1 0.012
Decimal: 26.137

Note that the result in the decimal notation is not exact, because 3 3 1622 5 0.01171875.
We have rounded this value to three digits (0.012). In other words, (1A.23)16 ≈ 26.137.
When we convert a number in decimal to hexadecimal, we need to specify how many
digits we allow to the right of the decimal point.

Example 2.10
The following shows how to convert (23.17)8 to decimal:

Octal 2 3 · 1 7
Place values 8 1
8 0
8 21
822
Partial result 16 1 3 1 0.125 1 0.109
Decimal: 19.234

This means that (23.17)8 ≈ 19.234 in decimal. Again, we have rounded up 7 3


822 5 0.109375.

Decimal to any base


We can convert a decimal number to its equivalent in any base. We need two procedures,
one for the integral part and one for the fractional part.

Converting the integral part


The integral part can be converted using repetitive division. Figure 2.6 shows the UML
diagram for the process. We use UML diagrams through the book. For those readers not
familiar with UML diagrams, please see Appendix B.

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2.2 Positional Number Systems 25

Figure 2.6 Algorithm to convert the integral part

Given:
Start source and base

Create an
empty destination

Source: integral part of decimal number


Divide source
by base Destination: integral part of converted number
Base: destination base
Condition: quotient is zero
Insert remainder
at the left of
destination

Quotient becomes
new source
[Condition is true]

Return:
Stop destination

We call the integral part of the decimal number the source and the integral part of the
converted number the destination. We first create an empty destination. We then repeti-
tively divide the source to get the quotient and the remainder. The remainder is inserted
to the left of the destination. The quotient becomes a new source. Figure 2.7 shows how
the destination is made with each repetition.

Figure 2.7 Converting the integral part

Divide by b

0 Q Q Q S Q: Quotients
R: Remainders
R R R R S: Source
D: Destination
D DK−1 D2 D1 D0 Di: Destination digit

We use Figure 2.6 to illustrate the process manually with some examples.
Example 2.11
The following shows how to convert 35 in decimal to binary. We start with the number in
decimal, we move to the left while continuously finding the quotients and the remainder
of division by 2. The result is 35 5 (100011)2:

0 ← 1 ← 2 ← 4 ← 8 ← 17 ← 35 Decimal
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 0 0 0 1 1 Binary

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Zweiundzwanzigstes Kapitel.

W as nun? Das Leben hatte seinen tollen Reigen zu Ende


getanzt ... hatte Menschen zertreten und Blüten vernichtet.
Was nun? Warum ertrug Adele noch die Last dieses Lebens? Was
erwartete sie noch? Es war ja zu Ende jetzt ... alles zu Ende ...
hoffnungslos.
Adele Altwirth wußte es selbst nicht, warum sie noch weiterlebte.
Sie gab sich keine Rechenschaft darüber ... sie dachte überhaupt
nichts mehr.
Wie eine lebendig Tote verbrachte sie die Tage. Ertrug die
Nächte, die schlaflos waren und währten wie Ewigkeiten. Sie ertrug
die Menschen, die zu ihr kamen und gute Worte sprachen. Sie
antwortete ihnen ... aber sie verstand nicht den Sinn ihrer eigenen
Rede. Sie war so ruhig ... so gefaßt ... so kühl und so unempfindsam
geworden. Die Leute wunderten sich über sie und sagten ihr nach,
daß sie kein Herz haben müsse.
Die Innsbrucker waren jetzt gut zu der Frau. Sie kamen alle zu
ihr, um sie zu trösten. Sogar die Tiefenbrunnerischen waren
gekommen. Hatten die alte Feindschaft begraben und wollten sich
wieder der alleinstehenden Verwandten annehmen. Schließlich war
sie doch die Witwe von Felix Altwirth, den Frau Therese
Tiefenbrunner, wie sie jetzt immer wieder fest und feierlich erklärte,
gleich einem eigenen Kind geliebt hatte.
Innerlich war die Apothekerin ja überzeugt davon, daß Adele die
Hauptschuld an dem Tode ihres Mannes trug. Und trotzdem
überwand sie sich und ging zu ihr hin. Bot ihr die Hand, und Adele
erwiderte den Gruß mit leichtem Druck. Sie sprach nicht viel mit den
Tiefenbrunnerischen. Nicht mehr und nicht weniger, als was sie mit
allen den andern gesprochen hatte. Sie war auch gar nicht
verwundert oder erfreut darüber, daß die Verwandten zu ihr kamen.
Es war ihr alles so gleichgültig.
Die Tiefenbrunners gingen von ihr fort mit dem unangenehmen
Gefühl, eigentlich ein recht überflüssiger Besuch gewesen zu sein.
Mit keinem Wort hatte ihnen Adele gedankt oder sie aufgefordert,
wieder zu kommen. Sie war artig gewesen, ruhig und gefaßt und gab
klare Antworten auf das, was man sie fragte.
Es war immer dasselbe, was die Leute von ihr wissen wollten.
Immer die gleichen Fragen nach Felix Altwirths Ende. Und auch
manchmal halb versteckte Anspielungen auf seine Beziehungen zu
Sophie Rapp. Ob denn Adele gar keine Ahnung habe, warum er in
den Tod gegangen sei? Ob er ihr denn keine Zeile hinterlassen habe
... keine Spur einer Aufklärung?
Nichts. Gar nichts. Immer wieder sagte es Adele. Immer
wiederholte sie das gleiche.
Nichts. Sie wisse nichts ... habe keine Ahnung von der
eigentlichen Ursache der Tat.
Adele sagte es so ruhig und selbstverständlich und überzeugend.
Und sie glaubten schließlich alle daran, daß Felix Altwirth aus
unglücklicher Liebe zu Sophie Rapp sich das Leben genommen
habe.
Mochten sie es glauben. Es war Adele recht so.
Adele Altwirth wußte es, daß sie durch ihr Schweigen zur
Mitschuldigen ihres Gatten geworden war. Wenn sie sprach, war
Sophie Rapp frei. Aber sie konnte nicht sprechen. Sie hatte nicht
den Mut, zur Anklägerin des Toten zu werden. Sein Geheimnis war
gut verwahrt bei ihr. Sie würde den Weg der Wahrheit, den sie dem
Lebenden gewiesen hatte, nicht gehen.
Zu niemandem hatte Adele darüber gesprochen. Zu keinem
Menschen hatte sie auch nur eine Andeutung gemacht. Nicht einmal
zu dem alten Rat Leonhard. Der war vielleicht der einzige von allen,
welcher der Wahrheit am nächsten kam. Aber er sagte nichts.
Sprach seinen Verdacht nicht aus.
Warum sollte er das Andenken eines Toten schänden? Sophie
Rapp war es in seinen Augen wirklich nicht wert, daß man sich um
ihretwillen Skrupel machte. Das Weib hatte gesündigt genug und viel
verbrochen. Der Rat Leonhard war felsenfest davon überzeugt, daß
Sophie Rapp die Schuldige sei. Er hegte nur für sich den Verdacht,
daß Felix von der Tat wußte oder vielleicht auch daran beteiligt war.
Aber diese Mutmaßung behielt er für sich. Und auch Adelen
gegenüber verriet er sich mit keiner Silbe, um sie nicht zu
beunruhigen.
Wenn sie das Andenken ihres Gatten rein haben wollte, so war
das ihre Sache. Ging keinen Menschen etwas an. Und um die
andere, die Sophie Rapp, war kein Schade. Wirklich nicht. So hielt
es der Rat Leonhard.
Er kam jetzt fleißig zu Frau Adele. Jeden Tag. Sie sprachen nie
viel miteinander ... diese beiden. Aber sie verstanden sich. Noch
genau so gut wie damals in den ersten Jahren des Elends droben
auf der Weiherburg.
Auch Doktor Storf und Frau Hedwig kamen zu Adele. Als ob es
die Frau des Arztes gewußt hätte, daß sie ihr bescheidenes Glück,
welches sie nun genießen durfte, nur dem Takt und der Ehre dieser
Frau verdankte, so rührend benahm sich die kleine Frau in dieser
schweren Zeit. Sie sorgte für Adele, so gut sie konnte, lud sie zu sich
ein und tat alles, um ihr Freude zu machen und sie aufzuheitern.
Und wirklich waren auch jene Stunden die einzigen, in denen das
starre Gefühl in der Seele der einsamen Frau sich etwas zu lösen
begann. Hier in diesem Kreise konnte sie wenigstens einiges
sprechen. Konnte sprechen von ihrer Zukunft und von ihren Plänen.
Und doch war es ihr, als spräche sie dann von einer andern,
einer fremden Frau. Von einer Frau, deren Schicksal sie eigentlich
gar nicht interessierte. Sie sprach von ihr, weil sie sah, daß sie
dadurch den Freunden eine Freude bereiten konnte.
Mit inniger Besorgnis hatte Max Storf die Wandlung
wahrgenommen, die in Frau Adele vorgegangen war. Da er sie
besser kannte als alle die andern, so fürchtete er für ihre
Gesundheit. Er wußte, daß diese Kälte und Gleichgültigkeit
unnatürlich waren und daß das Schwere, das sie erlebt hatte,
imstande war, ihr ganzes Leben zu zerstören.
Noch nie war es zu einer Aussprache zwischen den beiden
gekommen. Aber sie wußten und fühlten es trotzdem, daß sie
einander noch immer alles bedeuteten.
Adele Altwirth war nicht trennend zwischen Mann und Weib
getreten. Sie hatte ihre Macht über Max Storf dazu benützt, ihn
seiner Frau wieder zuzuführen. Und wenn es auch kein großes
Glück war, das die beiden Gatten jetzt zusammen genossen, so war
doch ein Behagen und eine stille Zufriedenheit bei ihnen eingekehrt.
Frau Hedwig hatte keine Ahnung davon, in welchem Maße sie
das alles Adele verdankte. Adele Altwirth hatte es im Laufe der Zeit
verstanden, den Freund zu begütigen ... hatte es verstanden, die
Schwächen, die er an seiner Gattin auszusetzen fand, zu
beschönigen und ihn auf ihre guten Eigenschaften aufmerksam zu
machen. Und ohne daß es Frau Hedwig bemerkte, übte Adele auch
auf sie einen wohltuenden Einfluß aus. Wirkte auf sie ein, daß sie
gar manches unterließ, von dem Adele wußte, es sei dem Freunde
nicht angenehm.
So konnte Adele mit reinem Gewissen und ehrlichem Auge der
Arztensfrau gegenübertreten. Sie konnte deren Freundschaft
annehmen und die rührende Liebe und Anhänglichkeit genießen, die
sie ihr jetzt zuteil werden ließ. Sie hatte nichts getan ... nichts
gesagt, was ihr hätte ein Vorwurf werden können.
Sie hatte ihre Liebe zu dem Freunde bezwungen ... hatte
gerungen und gekämpft und war rein geblieben.
Ob sie recht daran getan hatte? Manches Mal warf Adele sich
selber diese Frage auf.
War es recht ... daß sie so entsagt hatte?
Hatten nicht vielleicht doch jene Frauen recht ... jene von der Art
der Sophie Rapp ... die ihre Natur nicht bezwangen und ihrer Liebe
lebten?
Daß Sophie Rapp trotz allem ein echtes Weib geblieben war ... ja
sogar innere Größe und Seelenstärke besaß ... das wußte Adele
nun mit Bestimmtheit. Nicht viele Frauen ... das wußte Adele ...
hätten um ihrer Liebe willen ein so großes Opfer auf sich nehmen
können.
Waren nicht jene Frauen ... zu denen sie selber gehörte ... in
Wirklichkeit sehr arm zu nennen? Was hatte sie von ihrer reinen
Frauenehre? Ein Leben ... umsonst gelebt ... ungeliebt und
ungenossen.
Wie hatte Sophie Rapp damals zu ihr gesagt? ... Das Schönste
im Leben ist das Vergessen in Liebe. Es ist das einzige wahre und
echte Gefühl ... weil es die Natur gegeben hat. Wer diese Stimme
nicht kennt ... der hat sein Leben nicht gelebt.
Das war damals gewesen ... vor einem Jahr.
Und jetzt?
Jetzt war sie eine einsame Frau ... liebeleer und überflüssig auf
der Welt.
Ungenützt war sie ihre Bahn geschritten ... hatte redlich versucht,
gut zu leben und gut zu sein. Und es war doch alles zum Unheil
geworden.
Des Weibes einzig wahre Bestimmung ist es, die Ergänzung im
Leben des Mannes zu bilden. Und diese Bestimmung hatte Adele
Altwirth nicht erfüllt.
Ihre Ehe war eine Täuschung gewesen, ein Verkennen der
Gefühle. Sie wußten es beide nicht besser damals, weder sie noch
Felix. Sie hielten die Neigung, die sie füreinander empfunden hatten,
für Liebe. Und es war doch nur Freundschaft gewesen ... nichts
anderes. Ein Aufflackern ihrer Sinne ... wie es Freundschaften
zwischen den beiden Geschlechtern vorauszugehen pflegt.
Sie aber glaubten ... es sei die Liebe ... Es sei jenes heilige,
übermächtige und starke Gefühl, das immer währt ... nie vergeht und
stets gleich voll und tief und innig bleibt, ein Leben lang.
Jetzt aber hatte Adele die wahre ... große Liebe erkannt. Und sie
wußte es auch, daß sie sich beide, Felix und sie selbst, in ihren
Gefühlen getäuscht hatten.
Jetzt kannte sie das Verlangen und das Sehnen nach dem
Manne. Und da sie es erkannte ... erwürgte sie das, was echt war in
ihrer Natur ... entsagte und hielt sich rein.
War es recht von ihr? Immer und immer wieder regten sich
dieselben Zweifel und Selbstvorwürfe. Adele war irre geworden ...
irre an der Welt und an ihren Moralbegriffen und irre an sich selber.
Und noch ein Gedanke ... ein bitterer Vorwurf quälte die einsame
Frau. War sie nicht doch mit schuld daran ... daß Felix in den Tod
gegangen war?
War sie damals nicht doch zu hart gegen Felix gewesen? Hatte
sie ihn nicht zu streng auf den Weg des Rechtes gewiesen? Sie
hätte versuchen müssen, die Schuld mit ihm gemeinsam zu tragen
... die sie jetzt allein trug. Warum hatte sie es nicht getan? Warum?
Adele fühlte sich so unendlich müde jetzt ... Sie wollte nur ruhen
... ausruhen ... nicht mehr sehen und hören ...
Was sollte sie noch beginnen im Leben ... wo alles um sie herum
tot war?
Der alte Rat Leonhard trat für Adele ein, als ob sie seine Tochter
gewesen wäre. Sie ließ ihn handeln und befolgte ohne Widerspruch,
was er für sie bestimmte. Der alte Herr bestand darauf, daß Adele
fort sollte von Innsbruck ... fort von der Stadt, die ihr so viel Leid
gebracht hatte ... Sie müsse gehen von hier ... gebot der alte Herr.
Nur dann ... in gänzlich veränderter Lebenslage ... würde es ihr
möglich sein, sich selber wiederzufinden. Und der Rat Leonhard
bestand darauf, daß dies bald geschehe.
Er hatte Angst für die Frau, daß durch den bevorstehenden
Prozeß gegen Sophie Rapp alle Erinnerungen in Adele aufs neue
geweckt werden könnten. Auch Doktor Storf teilte diese Sorge und
war froh, daß Adele sich in alles fügte, was man für sie vorkehrte.
Die Wohnung bei den Altwirths droben in Wilten wurde
ausgeräumt. Adele sollte ihre Möbel zur Aufbewahrung geben und
fortreisen ... weit fort und erst dann wiederkehren ... wenn sie sich
eine neue Heimstätte gewählt hatte.
Adele Altwirth ließ die Freunde reden. Sie interessierte sich gar
nicht für ihre fernere Laufbahn. Sie wollte nur Ruhe haben ... nichts
als Ruhe.
So gleichgültig war ihr alles, was sie selbst betraf, daß sie nicht
einmal wußte, wohin sie reisen würde. Wenn man sie fragte, so
antwortete sie, nach München. Sie tat es ... weil sie diese Angabe
von der Qual weiterer Fragen befreite. Aber sie konnte es sich nicht
vorstellen ... daß sie schon in den allernächsten Tagen in München
sein würde. Sie hatte keine Freude darüber und knüpfte keine
Hoffnung daran. Es war ja so gleichgültig, wo sie sich aufhielt und
was mit ihr geschah. So hoffnungslos gleichgültig.
Nicht einmal die Auflösung ihres Haushaltes hatte vermocht, sie
aus ihrer Lethargie zu reißen. Ohne Schmerzempfinden, ohne
Bitternis und ohne Wehmut packte sie die Sachen zusammen.
Ordnete mechanisch dieses und jenes an.
Manche liebe Erinnerung kam da wieder zum Vorschein ...
Erinnerungen an die kleine Dora. Die Tränen lösten nicht die
Starrheit ihres Herzens. Es war, als ob jedes Empfinden in ihr
gestorben wäre, als ob es keine Linderung und keine Heilung mehr
für sie geben könnte.
Adele Altwirth packte mit großer Sorgfalt all die lieben
Kleinigkeiten des Kindes ein ... wickelte die Puppen sorgsam in
weißes Seidenpapier und umhüllte sie gewissenhaft. Sie bettete
dieselben in eine Kiste ... eine nach der andern. Das geschah mit
einer so selbstverständlichen Fürsorge, als ob die kleine Dora noch
am Leben wäre, mit strengen, kritischen Kinderblicken neben der
Mutter stünde und darauf achtete, daß den lieben kleinen
Puppenkindern ja kein Leid geschehe.
Kiste stand jetzt an Kiste gereiht wohlgeordnet und wohlverpackt
in der Wohnung umher. Die Möbel waren aus ihrem gewohnten Platz
gerückt, die Vorhänge waren von den Fenstern genommen und alle
die vielen Bilder in Kisten eingepackt. In großen Rollen lagen die
Teppiche am Boden. Die Öfen in den Zimmern waren ohne Feuer,
und die Türen der Zimmer standen offen, die Verbindungstüren der
einzelnen Gemächer und jene, die auf den Hausflur führten.
Es war kalt und traurig in den Zimmern. Ohne daß eines der
Fenster geöffnet gewesen wäre, herrschte doch eine frostige Zugluft.
Die Schritte hallten laut und mißtönig wider in der leeren Wohnung,
und die Stimmen der Leute, die da aus und ein gingen, um das zu
zerstören, was einmal ein Heim gewesen war, gaben ein lautes,
rauhes und unnatürliches Echo zurück.
Adele Altwirth hatte nun alles hergerichtet und zum Transport
bereitgestellt. Einige Koffer, die sie mit auf die Reise nehmen wollte,
standen fast fertig gepackt in einem der halbleeren Zimmer. Morgen
früh sollten die Männer kommen und alles zum Spediteur bringen.
Und noch am gleichen Abend sollte sie von Innsbruck abreisen. So
hatte es der Rat Leonhard angeordnet.
Der alte Herr war soeben bei Adele gewesen und hatte ihr dies
alles mitgeteilt. Kurz und bündig und ohne Umschweife ... wie es
seine Art war. Und trotzdem hatte er eine bange Sorge um die junge
Frau. Sein Blick, mit dem er scharf beobachtend auf sie sah, hatte
etwas Angstvolles in seinem Ausdruck.
„I weiß nit ... ob man Ihnen überhaupt allein reisen lassen kann
...“ sagte er in seiner gewöhnlichen mürrischen Art. „Sie schauen mir
nit darnach aus ... als ob Sie überhaupt wissen täten, was Sie
wollen!“ fügte er besorgt hinzu.
Adele lächelte wehmütig. „Doch ... Herr Rat ...“ sprach sie leise.
„Ich soll nach München fahren ... haben Sie gesagt.“
„Ja ... und noch weiter fort, wenn möglich!“ sagte er energisch. Er
entwickelte eine ganz ungewöhnliche Energie in dieser Zeit, der alte
Herr. Er hätte es sich selber gar nicht zugetraut, wieviel Kraft und
Interesse er noch imstande war, für ein anderes Wesen
aufzubringen.
„Aber in München ... haben Sie da wohl jemand, der sich ein
bissel um Ihnen bekümmert?“ fragte er dann neuerdings besorgt
nach einer kleineren Pause. „Mir ist alleweil ... als wenn’s besser
wär’ ... daß jemand mit Ihnen fahren tät’. Vielleicht ... wenn’s nit gar
so weit wär’ ... dann könnt’ ich ...“ setzte er mit einiger Unsicherheit
hinzu.
Eine Fahrt nach München und überhaupt eine Reise wäre für den
alten Sonderling ein ganz ungeheures Unternehmen gewesen.
Schon seit vielen, vielen Jahren war der Rat Leonhard nicht mehr
aus Innsbruck hinausgekommen. Daß er jetzt diesen Gedanken in
Erwähnung zog, bezeugte, in wie schwerer Besorgnis er wegen
Adele war.
Adele Altwirth beruhigte den alten Herrn. Sie fühle sich ganz wohl
... sagte sie ... und würde sicher auf sich selber achten. Und in
München habe sie schon ein paar Bekannte, zu denen sie gehen
könne. Der Herr Rat solle sich ihretwegen keine Sorge mehr
machen. Sie werde sicher ganz zurechtkommen und auch mit der
Zeit wieder ganz ruhig werden. Aber Adele glaubte das alles, was sie
sagte, selber nicht. Und der Herr Rat war auch nur für den
Augenblick beruhigt.
Später ... als er von Adele gegangen war ... reifte der Entschluß
immer mehr in ihm, für alle Fälle einmal einen Koffer bereit zu
halten, um dann doch vielleicht mit ihr zu fahren. Vorderhand aber
wollte er diesen heroischen Entschluß nicht auf die Spitze treiben.
Dazu war ja morgen noch immer Zeit genug. Mußte nicht gerade
jetzt sein ... beschwichtigte er sich selber.
Und dann schlich er ... in tiefes Nachdenken versunken ...
langsam dahin. Den Kopf leicht zur Seite geneigt und die Hände am
Rücken, und machte ein unsagbar verbissenes und zuwideres
Gesicht ... der alte Herr ...
Es war am frühen Nachmittag, als der Rat Leonhard Adele
verlassen hatte. Nun war sie allein in der halbleeren Wohnung und
sah sinnend auf die Verwüstung, die in den letzten Tagen hier
entstanden war.
Durch die kahlen, verstaubten Fensterscheiben lugte die Sonne.
Suchte mit ihren Strahlen zu vergolden, was es an diesen traurigen
Überresten noch zu vergolden gab. Sie fand nichts als das weiche,
aschblonde Haar der jungen Frau. Und sie spielte mit ihm ... und
wob einen feinen Strahlenkranz um ihr Haupt.
Bleich und müde saß Frau Adele in der Nähe des Fensters, auf
einem der vielen Stühle, die verstreut und in Unordnung
umherstanden. Tief nach vorne gebeugt und die Arme auf die Knie
gestützt ... so saß Adele lange Zeit und starrte immer vor sich hin ...
Doktor Storf war zu ihr gekommen, um sie in sein Haus zu bitten.
Sie sollte bei den Storfs wohnen, solange sie noch in Innsbruck war.
Jetzt stand er vor ihr und brachte fast demütig seine Bitte vor. Auch
Adele hatte sich erhoben und sah mit einem langen, traurigen Blick
auf den Freund. Es war ihr mit einem Male so seltsam schwer
zumute.
„Wollen Sie nicht zu uns kommen ... Frau Adele?“ bat Max Storf
neuerdings. „Jetzt ... heute können Sie doch nicht mehr hier bleiben
in dieser Wüste.“ Er versuchte es, einen leichten, scherzhaften Ton
anzuschlagen. Aber seine Stimme klang gepreßt, und sein Blick war
unruhig und unsicher.
„Ich reise morgen abend ...“ sagte Adele ruhig.
„Morgen schon?“ Erschrocken und bestürzt sah sie der Arzt an.
„Schon morgen ... können Sie nicht ... Adele ... ich bitte Sie ... noch
ein paar Tage ...“ fügte er verwirrt und stockend hinzu.
„Ein paar Tage ... und dann ... wir müssen uns ja doch einmal
trennen ... Max.“ Adele sagte das weich und innig. Es war das erste
Mal, daß sie ihn bei seinem Vornamen nannte.
Doktor Storf sah mit tiefer Bewegung auf Adele. Es war ihm ... als
müßte er die Frau fest in seine Arme schließen ... und sie schützend
durchs Leben führen. Fast übermächtig stark wallte dieses Gefühl in
ihm auf.
Er durfte es nicht tun. Er wußte es. Er mußte an sich halten ... die
Zähne aufeinander beißen und überwinden. Aber er fühlte es klar
und deutlich ... daß mit Adele das echteste Empfinden ... das reinste
und beste, das er je für ein Weib gehegt hatte ... dahin ging.
Nun würde ihm nichts mehr bleiben als die Erinnerung. Er würde
sein Leben weiterführen ... nur seiner Pflicht leben ... seiner Familie
und seinen Kindern.
Sie sahen sich lange in die Augen. Sie sagten kein Wort und
legten nicht einmal die Hände ineinander. Aber es lag eine ganze
Welt in ihren Blicken ... eine Welt von Wünschen und Sehnen, von
Leid und Entsagen.
„Dann wär’s ein Abschied ... jetzt ... Adele?“ sagte Max Storf
leise, und seine Stimme bebte.
„Ja.“ Sie hauchte das Wort kaum hörbar. Starr und aufrecht stand
sie vor ihm und mit einem Antlitz, das so bleich war und so
regungslos wie der Tod.
Und wieder trieben die Strahlen der Sonne ihr loses Spiel. Lugten
in alle Winkel und Ecken, hüpften auf und nieder und blieben an den
beiden Menschen haften ... die jetzt für ewig im Leben voneinander
Abschied nahmen.
Max Storf zog die weiße, noch immer schöne und wohlgepflegte
Hand der blonden Frau an seine Lippen und küßte sie. Küßte sie
lange und küßte sie innig. Und dann ging er.
Sie hatten kein Wort mehr miteinander gesprochen, und ihre
Lippen ... die sich zueinander sehnten ... hatten sich nicht gefunden.
Als Max Storf gegangen war ... da war es Adele ... als hätte die
Sonne sich versteckt ... als sei es mit einem Male dunkler und
düsterer und noch trauriger geworden im Zimmer.
Morgen ... schon morgen abend würde sie fort sein von hier ...
Sie sagte es leise ... kaum hörbar vor sich hin.
Morgen abend ... War es ihr denn leid, fortzugehen von dieser
Stadt?
Adele Altwirth atmete tief. Sie fühlte ... wie sich ein schwerer
Druck auf ihre Brust legte ... wie er sie drückte gleich einem Alp.
Es mußte wohl so sein ... Das Gefühl, das sie jetzt empfand ...
schmerzte sie. Und eine Unruhe kam über sie und ein Sehnen ...
eine große Sehnsucht nach ihm ... der jetzt von ihr gegangen war.
Sie hätte ihn zurückrufen mögen ... ihn bitten ... daß er sie zu
sich nehme ... daß sie sich nimmer von ihm zu trennen brauchte.
Sie tat es nicht. Hielt an sich ... wie sie stets an sich gehalten
hatte.
Aber es trieb sie fort von hier ... hinaus ins Freie. Sie konnte es
nun mit einem Male nicht mehr aushalten in der öden ... zerstörten
Wohnung.
Und Adele Altwirth ging in den hellen ... sonnenlachenden
Wintertag. Ohne Ziel und ohne Zweck. Nur ruhig werden wollte sie ...
die Gefühle niederkämpfen ... die so übermächtig in ihr geweckt
worden waren. Nun wußte sie ... daß sie eine Lebende war ... nicht
gestorben ... trotz allem Leide.
Adele Altwirth wanderte durch die stillen Straßen der Stadt. Es
trieb sie ... noch ein letztes Mal die Wege aufzusuchen, die sie mit
ihrem Kinde gegangen war. Noch einen letzten vollen Blick wollte sie
auf die Stadt werfen ... die sie trotz allem lieb gewonnen hatte.
Sie wanderte hinüber zum Inn ... und hinauf zur Weiherburg.
Vorbei an dem kleinen Häuschen, das einmal ihr Idyll gewesen war
und ihr großes Leid gesehen hatte.
Und immer weiter ging sie ... immer höher empor. Und je weiter
sie ging, desto leichter wurde es ihr. Fort ... Nur immer höher die
Berge hinan.
Das Atmen wurde hier so leicht, und der schwere Druck löste
sich allmählich von ihrer Seele. Nun war sie hoch oben ... hatte die
Stadt tief zu ihren Füßen liegen.
Wie herrlich es hier oben war ... Wie frei und gottesnahe ... Sie
wollte weiter gehen ... viel weiter ... fort ... und nie mehr
wiederkehren ... nie mehr ...
Drunten im Tal lag die Stadt. Tief und ernst und schweigsam. Die
Schatten senkten sich auf sie hernieder ... machten sie noch ernster
und stiller.
In nordischer Pracht erstand im Süden die stolze, spitze Zacke
der Serles. Reckte sich in den blauen Abendhimmel hinein ... kalt
und vornehm und majestätisch.
Und golden schien die Sonne im Westen. Küßte noch ein letztes
Mal mit ihren Strahlen alle Berge und Spitzen, küßte die tief
verschneiten Wälder und Bergdörfer und neigte sich langsam zum
Untergang. Wie grüßend spielte sie noch mit dem blonden Haar der
hochgewachsenen Frau ... die langsam ... aufrecht und gelassen
weiterschritt ... der Fremde entgegen.
Dreiundzwanzigstes Kapitel.

D ie Innsbrucker hatten wenig Mitleid mit dem Schicksal der


Sophie Rapp. Kein Mensch kümmerte sich um sie. Niemand
suchte sie auf.
Nur die Ennemoserin war zu ihr gekommen. Gleich nachdem sie
von dem Unglück erfahren hatte. Sie hatte die Pflegetochter
aufgesucht in ihrer Schande und hatte mit ihr geweint. Denn Sophie
Rapp konnte nicht viel sprechen. Sie weinte nur ... weinte ...
Die alte Frau hatte es nicht begreifen können und nicht fassen,
wie das nur möglich war ... wie so ein Unglück hatte geschehen
können. Wie konnte der Herrgott im Himmel droben so ein Übel
dulden?
„Ennemoserin, du hast kein Glück mit Kinder!“ sagten die Leute
in Rattenberg.
Es mußte wohl so sein. Sie hatte kein Glück mit Kindern ... die
Alte.
Und noch fleißiger als bisher ging sie von jetzt an zur Kirche.
Kniete dort und betete ... betete immerzu und unaufhörlich. Jetzt
hatte sie noch ein sündiges Kind, für das sie die Gnade des Himmels
erflehen mußte. Die Ennemoserin kümmerte sich um nichts mehr auf
der Welt. Ihr ganzes Leben war nun ein einziges Gebet geworden ...
Sie hatten die Sophie Rapp zu jahrelanger Zuchthausstrafe
verurteilt.
Ihre Richter waren nicht barmherzig gewesen, und sie hatte
keine Barmherzigkeit von ihnen verlangt.
Mit niemandem war sie in Berührung gekommen während ihrer
Untersuchungshaft ... hatte mit keinem Menschen gesprochen ...
außer mit der Ennemoserin und mit ihrem Verteidiger.
Dieser war es auch, der ihr von dem Tode des Malers Altwirth
sprach. Warum er es ihr sagte? Hoffte er ihr ein Geständnis zu
entlocken ... daß sie nicht allein beteiligt war bei der Tat?
Aber Sophie sagte nichts. Kein Wort. Wenn Felix tot war ...
warum sollte sie den Toten verraten, wo sie für den Lebenden hatte
leiden wollen?
Sie blieb ruhig. Ganz ruhig. Aber es war ihr recht ... daß Felix tot
war. Sie freute sich über seinen Tod als über eine frohe Kunde. Es
war ihr ... als hätte er ihr die letzte Botschaft seiner Liebe kund
getan.
Auch davon sprach ihr der Verteidiger, daß Adele Altwirth
heimlich von Innsbruck gegangen war. Und dann redete er lange
und gut zu Sophie. Suchte zu ergründen, ob zwischen ihrer Tat und
den Altwirths ein Zusammenhang bestände.
Nein. Sophie blieb fest. Sie war die Täterin. Sie ganz allein. Im
Zorn hatte sie den Gatten ermordet. Niemand war dabei. Niemand
wußte davon. Kein Mensch.
So mußte denn Sophie ihre Strafe antreten ... die Tat büßen,
durch eine jahrelange Haft.
Es würde nicht lange dauern mit ihr ... das fühlte Sophie. Und sie
freute sich darüber ... freute sich ...
Man hatte sie in die Strafanstalt gebracht ... hinunter in das
Unterinntal ... in das alte freundliche Städtchen Schwaz ... Und sie
war gern gegangen ... ganz gerne.
Nun lebte sie dahin in strenger Zucht ... in Schweigen, in Arbeiten
und in Gebeten. Ganz für sich. Sie hatte an keinen Menschen
Anschluß, und sie suchte auch keinen.
Aber eine Begegnung hatte sie ... die ihr lieb war und die sie
freute.
Die Schwester Salesia war zu ihr gekommen ... steinalt ... aber
noch immer rüstig. Und gut und frisch und munter. Bei dem Anblick
der alten Schwester war es Sophie, als ob die Jahre ihrer Kindheit
aufs neue für sie erstünden. Sie fühlte sich wieder zum Kinde
werden ... und sie lernte wieder glauben und beten und auf Gott
vertrauen.
„Kind ... Kind!“ meinte die Schwester mit mildem Vorwurf. „Daß
du dazu gekommen bist ... dazu ... mit deinem wilden Blut?“
Langsam schlichen die Tage in der Anstalt und langsam die
Wochen und Monate. Und immer war es derselbe Lauf des Tages ...
immer dasselbe Einerlei ... Schweigen ... arbeiten und beten.
Und Sophie Rapp betete. Sie betete mit dem alten Glauben ihrer
Kindheit. Sie betete um das Ende ... daß es bald nahe ... daß es sie
mit jenen vereinigen sollte, die sie lieb gehabt hatte auf Erden.
Langsam strichen die Tage dahin. Endlos langsam. Dem Frühling
folgte der Sommer und dem Sommer der Herbst.
Als der Winter seine rauhe Herrschaft angetreten hatte, als der
Eiswind brauste durchs Tal mit Sturm und Macht ... und an den
schwer vergitterten Fenstern rüttelte, als wünschte er, allen den
reuigen und nicht reuigen Büßerinnen da drinnen die Freiheit wieder
zu bringen ... da legte sich Sophie Rapp zum Sterben.
Sie hatte ihn schon lange gefühlt, den stechenden Schmerz. Sie
wußte, daß er an ihrem Lebensmark zehrte ... daß ihre Kraft abnahm
von Tag zu Tag. Eingefallen und hohlwangig sah sie aus und
abgezehrt und mager. Aber ihre Augen leuchteten im unnatürlichen
Feuer ... leuchteten von der Fieberglut, die ihr Leben vernichtete.
Nur mühsam konnte sie sich noch dahinschleppen, und ein
bellender, trockener Husten erschütterte ihren verfallenen Körper.
Galoppierende Schwindsucht konstatierte der Arzt. Ihr Leben
konnte nur mehr Tage dauern.
Der Priester kam, um ihr die letzten Sakramente zu spenden.
Friedlich und wie verklärt lag Sophie Rapp in ihren Kissen. Sie war
so glücklich und so zufrieden, daß es nun zu Ende ging.
Viele Stunden lang schlief sie. Dann bat sie ... daß man die alte
Schwester Salesia zu ihr rufen möge.
Es war ein mäßig großes Zimmer, in dem Sophie lag. Rein und
sauber, aber kahl und nüchtern. Ohne Schmuck und ohne Zierde.
Ein großes Kreuz hing über dem Bette. Mit mildem, verzeihendem
Blick sah der sterbende Heiland hernieder.
Das Bett stand frei in der Mitte des Zimmers. Nur das Kopfende
war an die Wand gerückt. Ein kleines, weißgedecktes Tischchen war
in der Nähe. Darauf standen eine große Wachskerze und ein Glas
Wasser. Neben dem Bette hing ein kleiner zinnerner
Weihbrunnkessel. Das war alles.
Zu Füßen des Bettes saß die Schwester Salesia und betete den
Rosenkranz. Ihre Hände, die knochig und runzlig waren und vom
Alter gegerbt, zitterten leicht. Ihre Lippen bewegten sich im lautlosen
Gebete. Perle um Perle ließ die alte Schwester von dem Rosenkranz
fallen und sah dabei mit einem Blick, der immer ängstlicher wurde,
auf die Sterbende ... beobachtete jeden Zug und jede Veränderung
in dem verfallenen Gesicht.
Wie jung die Sophie aussah. Noch immer jung und hübsch. Trotz
allem. Das braune Gesichtchen war eingefallen und länglich
geworden ... die Lippen waren voll und brennend rot ... zu rot.
Die alte Schwester mit dem rührend guten Gesicht, durch das
jetzt viele ungezählte Furchen zogen, sah mitleidig auf das kranke
Weib, das in heißen Fieberträumen wiederholt unruhig und
schmerzhaft aufstöhnte.
Immerfort mußte die Schwester auf die Kranke sehen ... sie
anschauen ... und in ihren Zügen die schwere Schuld lesen, die sie
auf sich geladen hatte.
So waren die beiden ganz allein ... viele ... viele Stunden lang.
Bis der Abend kam und eine junge Schwester die Alte ablöste, um
die Nachtwache bei der Sterbenden anzutreten.
Noch nie hatte Sophie das Bewußtsein erlangt, seit die
Schwester Salesia bei ihr war. Sie dämmerte nur so dahin oder warf
sich unruhig und gequält im Bette herum.
„Schwester ...“ bat die alte Klosterfrau flüsternd ... „tun’s mir’s
sagen ... wenn’s zu Ende geht mit ihr. Tun’s mich rufen. Wissen’s,
ich hab’ sie als Kind kennt. Ist nit schlecht g’wesen ... die Sophie ...“
sagte sie mit zitternder Stimme. „G’wiß nit. Nur a bissel wild ... a
bissel zu wild ...“ fügte sie entschuldigend hinzu.
In den Morgenstunden ... als die Glocken der Kirche zur
Frühmesse läuteten, kam die junge Schwester, die alte Klosterfrau
zu holen.
Sophie lag jetzt ganz ruhig da ... mit offenen Augen und bei
klarem Bewußtsein. Sie fühle sich viel wohler, sagte sie.
Schwester Salesia hatte ihren Stuhl ganz nahe an das Bett
gerückt und hielt die heiße, trockene Hand der Kranken in ihrer
eigenen.
Im Zimmer brannte das schwache Licht einer kleinen Lampe. Der
Schein fiel gedämpft auf Sophie, die jetzt mit einem fast verklärten
Antlitz auf die Schwester sah.
„Schwester Salesia ...“ fing Sophie zu reden an ... „wirklich ... ist’s
so weit?“ Sie zeigte mit einer matten Bewegung ihrer Hand auf die
Wachskerze ... deren Bedeutung sie kannte. Es war die Sterbekerze
... hochgeweiht und gesegnet. Bei dem ersten Anzeichen des letzten
Kampfes sollte sie entzündet werden.
„Still sein, Sophele ... Still sein ...“ begütigte die Schwester.
Unwillkürlich und wie selbstverständlich kam ihr diese Anrede, die
sie der Frau als Kind gegeben hatte. „Deswegen brauchst nit zu
sterben, kannst schon wieder besser werden. Ganz gut ...“ tröstete
sie. „Ganz wie’s unsers Herrn Willen ist.“
„Ich will aber gern sterben ... Schwester ...“ sagte Sophie ruhig.
„Recht gern. Freu’ mich drauf ...“ fügte sie matt hinzu.
„Und hast so gern gelebt ...“ Die alte Schwester sagte es mit
Wehmut.
Ein tiefer ... glücklicher Seufzer hob die kranke Brust der
Sterbenden.
„So gern ... So unendlich gern ...“ flüsterte sie selig. Dann schloß
sie die Augen und lag still und friedlich da.
Die alte Klosterschwester neigte sich lauschend über sie.
„Tu’ alle Sünd’ bereuen ... Sophie ...“ mahnte sie mit zitternder
Stimme. „Tu’ dein Leben aufopfern ...“
„Schwester ...“ Voll und weit schlug Sophie die Augen auf und
schaute auf die alte Schwester, die mit angstvollem Blicke sah, wie
plötzlich fahle Blässe über das Gesicht der Kranken zog.
„Schwester ...“
„Kind ... wir wollen beten ...“ sagte die Schwester. „Beten zu
unserer lieben Frau ... um eine glückliche Sterbstund’ ...“
„Schwester ...“ flüsterte die Kranke wieder ... „Kann man was
bereuen ... das einen so glücklich g’macht hat?“
„Kind ... alle Sünden kommen vom Bösen ...“ Mit bebender
Stimme sagte es die alte Schwester. Sie sah, daß die Schatten des
Todes immer näher kamen, und ihr Herz klopfte aufgeregt und
unruhig. Leise erhob sie sich und zündete die Wachskerze an.
Rückte das Tischchen näher an das Bett, legte die Hände der
Sterbenden ineinander und umwand sie mit ihrem eigenen
Rosenkranz. Dann kniete sie nieder ... faltete die Hände und betete.
Der graue Morgen sah zu dem Fenster herein mit einem vollen
Schimmer und mengte sich mit dem trüben Licht der dämmerigen
Lampe und der Sterbekerze.
Sophie hatte die Augen geschlossen und lächelte. Lächelte innig
und lächelte selig. Und ihre Lippen öffneten sich sehnsüchtig und
verlangend.
„Und vergib uns unsere Schuld!“ betete die Schwester mit lauter,
aber zitteriger Stimme.
„Schuld?“ hauchte Sophie mit stockendem Atem. „Schuld?“
„Tu’ beten ... Sophie ... bereu’ ...“ drängte die Schwester Salesia
angstvoll. „Du hast dein’ Mann getötet ... bereu’ ...“

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