Unit-IV; Professional Sales Representative (PSR).pptx
History of computing technology
1. P. Pavan Kumar, Asst. Professor, EEE Dept.,
MVGRCE
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTING
DEVICES
2. What are computers?
The first computers were people !!!
That is, electronic computers (and the earlier
mechanical computers) were given this name
because they performed the work that had previously
been assigned to people.
"Computer" was originally a job title: it was used to
describe those human beings (predominantly
women) whose job was to perform the repetitive
calculations required to compute such things as
navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary
3. Need for Mechanical/Electronic calculator
Imagine you had a job where hour after hour, day
after day, you were to do nothing but compute
multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in,
leading to carelessness, leading to mistakes. And
even on your best days you wouldn't be producing
answers very fast.
Therefore, inventors have been searching for
hundreds of years for a way to mechanize (that is,
find a mechanism that can perform) this task
minimizing human errors.
7. Abacus (3rd to 6th century B.C.)
The abacus was an
early aid for
mathematical
computations. Its only
value is that it aids the
memory of the human
performing the
calculation.
A skilled abacus
operator can work on
addition and subtraction
problems at the speed of
a person equipped with
a hand calculator
8. Abacus (3rd to 6th century B.C.)
The abacus is often wrongly attributed to China. In
fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300
B.C. by the Babylonians. The abacus is still in use
today, principally in the far east.
9. John Napier (1617)
In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsman
named John Napier invented logarithms, which are
a technology that allows multiplication to be
performed via addition.
Ex: log2x = 5
10. Napier’s bones
The magic ingredient is
the logarithm of each
operand, which was
originally obtained from
a printed table. But
Napier also invented
an alternative to tables,
where the logarithm
values were carved on
ivory sticks which are
now called Napier's
Bones.
11. Napier’s bones
Used to perform various
mathematical functions
(multiplication, square
and cube roots). Also
known as numbering
rods, multiplying rulers,
speaking rods
12. Slide rule (1620-30)
Napier's invention led directly to the slide rule, first built in
England in 1620’s and still in use in the 1960's by the NASA
engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs
which landed men on the moon.
13. Slide rule (1620-30)
The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630,
shortly after Napier’s publication of the concept of
the logarithm. In 1620 Edmund Gunter of Oxford
developed a calculating device with a single
logarithmic scale; with additional measuring tools it
could be used to multiply and divide. In c.
1622, William Oughtred of Cambridge combined
two handheld Gunter rules to make a device that is
recognizably the modern slide rule.
Used until 1970’s
14. Leonardo da Vinci (1502)
Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) made
drawings of gear-driven
calculating machines but
apparently never built
any.
The first mechanical
calculator may have
been conceived by
Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) around
1502. Da Vinci's
invention was
forgotten for over 300
years.
16. Leonardo da Vinci (1502)
Leonardo’s mechanism maintains a constant ratio in each of
its 13 digit-registering wheels. For each complete revolution
of the first handle, the unit wheel is turned slightly to register
a new digit ranging from zero to nine.
Consistent with the ten to one ratio, the tenth revolution of the
first handle causes the unit wheel to complete its first
revolution and register zero, which in turn drives the decimal
wheel from zero to one. Each additional wheel marking
hundreds, thousands, etc., operates on the same ratio.
Slight refinements were made on Leonardo’s original sketch
to give the viewer a clearer picture of how each of the 13
wheels can be independently operated and yet maintain the
ten to one ratio. Leonardo’s sketch shows weights to
demonstrate the equability of the machine."
17. Calculating clock (1623)
The first gear-driven
calculating machine to
actually be built was
probably the
calculating clock, so
named by its inventor,
the German professor
Wilhelm Schickard in
1623. This device got
little publicity because
Schickard died soon
afterward in the
bubonic plague.
18. Blaise Pascal (1642)
In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the
Pascaline as an aid for his father who was a tax
collector. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-
function calculator (it could only add) but couldn't
sell many because of their exorbitant cost and
because they really weren't that accurate (at that
time it was not possible to fabricate gears with
the required precision).
Up until the present age when car dashboards
went digital, the odometer portion of a car's
speedometer used the very same mechanism as
the Pascaline to increment the next wheel after
each full revolution of the prior wheel.
22. Leibniz’s Stepped Reckoner (1672-94)
Just a few years after Pascal, the German Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (co-inventor with Newton of
calculus) managed to build a four-function (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division) calculator
that he called the stepped reckoner because,
instead of gears, it employed fluted drums having
ten flutes arranged around their circumference in a
stair-step fashion.
Although the stepped reckoner employed the
decimal number system (each drum had 10 flutes),
Leibniz was the first to advocate use of the binary
number system which is fundamental to the
operation of modern computers. Leibniz is
considered one of the greatest of the philosophers
but he died poor and alone.
24. Leibniz’s Stepped Reckoner (1672-94)
Leibniz wheel
In the position shown, the counting wheel
meshes with 3 of the 9 Leibniz wheel's
25. Jacquard Loom (1801)
In 1801 the Frenchman
Joseph Marie Jacquard
invented a power loom
that could base its weave
(and hence the design on
the fabric) upon a pattern
automatically read from
punched wooden cards,
held together in a long row
by rope. Descendants of
these punched cards
have been in use ever
since (remember the
"hanging chad" from the
Florida presidential ballots
of the year 2000?).
26. Jacquard Loom (1801)
By selecting
particular cards
for Jacquard's
loom you defined
the woven pattern
29. Charles Babbage-Difference engine
By 1822 the English
mathematician
Charles Babbage
was proposing a
steam driven
calculating machine
the size of a room,
which he called the
Difference Engine.
30. Charles Babbage-Difference engine
This machine would be able to compute tables of
numbers, such as logarithm tables.
He obtained government funding for this project
due to the importance of numeric tables in ocean
navigation.
Construction of Babbage's Difference Engine
proved exceedingly difficult and the project soon
became the most expensive government funded
project up to that point in English history.
Ten years later the device was still nowhere near
complete, acrimony abounded between all
involved, and funding dried up. The device was
never finished.
31. Charles Babbage-Analytic engine
Babbage was not deterred, and by then was on
to his next brainstorm, which he called the
Analytic Engine.
This device, large as a house and powered by 6
steam engines,
It was programmable, thanks to the punched
card technology of Jacquard.
Babbage saw that the pattern of holes in a
punch card could be used to represent an
abstract idea such as a problem statement or the
raw data required for that problem's solution.
33. Charles Babbage-Analytic
engine
Babbage realized that punched paper could be
employed as a storage mechanism, holding
computed numbers for future reference.
Because of the connection to the Jacquard loom,
Babbage called the two main parts of his Analytic
Engine the "Store" and the "Mill", as both terms are
used in the weaving industry.
The Store was where numbers were held and the
Mill was where they were "woven" into new results.
In a modern computer these same parts are called
the memory unit and the central processing unit
(CPU).
34. Charles Babbage-Analytic engine
The Analytic Engine also had a key function that
distinguishes computers from calculators: the
conditional statement.
A conditional statement allows a program to achieve
different results each time it is run.
Based on the conditional statement, the path of the
program can be determined based upon a situation
that is detected at the very moment the program is
running.
35. Ada Lovelace Byron
Babbage befriended Ada Byron, the
daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron
Though she was only 19, she was fascinated
by Babbage's ideas
She began fashioning programs for the
Analytic Engine, although still unbuilt.
The Analytic Engine remained unbuilt (the
British government refused to get involved
with this one) but Ada earned her spot in
history as the first computer programmer.
Ada invented the subroutine and was the first
to recognize the importance of looping.
36. Ada Lovelace Byron
In her notes, Lovelace emphasised the difference between the
Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its
ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity. She
realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number
crunching. In her notes, she wrote:
[The Analytical Engine] might act upon other things besides number,
were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be
expressed by those of the abstract science of operations, and which
should be also susceptible of adaptations to the action of the
operating notation and mechanism of the engine...Supposing, for
instance, that the fundamental relations of pitched sounds in the
science of harmony and of musical composition were susceptible of
such expression and adaptations, the engine might compose
elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity
or extent
38. Herman Hollerith-Hollerith desk
The Hollerith
desk, consisted
of:
a card reader
which sensed the
holes in the cards,
a gear driven
mechanism which
could count
(similar to
Pascal’s)
A large wall of dial
indicators to
display the results
of the count.
40. Hollerith Desk
Hollerith's technique
was successful and the
1890 US census was
completed in only 3
years at a savings of 5
million dollars.
41. IBM
Hollerith built a
company, the
Tabulating Machine
Company which, after a
few buyouts, eventually
became International
Business Machines,
known today as IBM.
42. Hollerith’s Inovation
By using punch cards,
Hollerith created a way
to store and retrieve
information.
This was the first type
of read and write
technology
47. IBM Mark 1 (1944)
One early success was the Harvard Mark I computer which
was built as a partnership between Harvard and IBM in 1944.
This was the first programmable digital computer made in the
U.S.
But it was not a purely electronic computer. Instead the Mark
I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and
48. IBM Mark 1 (1944)
The machine weighed 5
tons, incorporated 500 miles
of wire, was 8 feet tall and
51 feet long, and had a 50 ft
rotating shaft running its
length, turned by a 5
horsepower electric motor.
The Mark I ran non-stop for
15 years, sounding like a
roomful of ladies knitting.
50. Grace Hopper 1906-1992
Developed the first
compiler (A-0, later
ARITH-MATIC, MATH-
MATIC and FLOW-
MATIC) while working at
the Remington Rand
corporation on the
UNIVAC I.
Later returned to the
NAVY where she worked
on COBOL and was
eventually promoted to
Rear Admiral.
51. Grace Hopper 1906-1992
Rear Admiral Grace Hopper,
US Navy, and other
programmers at a UNIVAC
console - 1957
Grace Hopper
(January 1984)
52. Some of Grace Hopper's Awards
She won the first "man of the year" award from
the Data Processing Management Association
in 1969.
She became the first person from the United
States and the first woman of any nationality
to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the
British Computer Society in 1973.
Upon her retirement she received the Defense
Distinguished Service Medal in 1986
She received the National Medal of
Technology in 1991
53. The First Bug
One of the primary
programmers for the Mark I
was a woman, Grace Hopper.
Hopper found the first
computer "bug": a dead moth
that had gotten into the Mark I
The word "bug" had been used
to describe a defect since at
least 1889 but Hopper is
credited with coining the word
"debugging" to describe the
work to eliminate program
faults.
54.
55. Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1956
First Generation Electronic
Computers used Vacuum
Tubes
Vacuum tubes are glass tubes
with circuits inside.
Vacuum tubes have no air
inside of them, which protects
the circuitry.
56. First Generation Computers
The first electronic computer was designed at
Iowa State between 1939-1942
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer used the binary
system(1’s and 0’s).
Contained vacuum tubes and stored numbers
for calculations by burning holes in paper
57. Atanasoff – Berry Computer
One of the earliest attempts to
build an all-electronic (that is,
no gears, cams, belts, shafts,
etc.) digital computer occurred
in 1937 by J. V. Atanasoff,
This machine was the first to
store data as a charge on a
capacitor, which is how today's
computers store information in
their main memory (DRAM or
dynamic RAM). As far as its
inventors were aware, it was
also the first to employ binary
arithmetic.
58. Colussus
The Colossus, built during
World War II by Britain for
the purpose of breaking the
cryptographic codes used
by Germany.
Britain led the world in
designing and building
electronic machines
dedicated to code breaking,
and was routinely able to
read coded Germany radio
transmissions.
Not a general purpose,
reprogrammable machine.
59. ENIAC-1943
The title of forefather of today's all-electronic digital
computers is usually awarded to ENIAC, which
stood for Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator.
ENIAC was built at the University of Pennsylvania
between 1943 and 1945 by two professors, John
Mauchly and the 24 year old J. Presper Eckert,
who got funding from the war department after
promising they could build a machine that would
replace all the "computers”
ENIAC filled a 20 by 40 foot room, weighed 30 tons,
and used more than 18,000 vacuum tubes.
62. Programming the ENIAC
To reprogram the ENIAC you had to rearrange the
patch cords that you can observe on the left in the
prior photo, and the settings of 3000 switches that
you can observe on the right.
To program a modern computer, you type out a
program with statements like:
Circumference = 3.14 * diameter
To perform this computation on ENIAC you had to
rearrange a large number of patch cords and then
locate three particular knobs on that vast wall of
knobs and set them to 3, 1, and 4.
64. Problems with the ENIAC
The ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes to hold
a charge
Vacuum tubes were so notoriously unreliable
that even twenty years later many
neighborhood drug stores provided a "tube
tester"
66. The Stored Program Computer
In 1945 John von Neumann presented his idea
of a computer that would store computer
instructions in a CPU
The CPU(Central Processing Unit) consisted
of elements that would control the computer
electronically
67. The Stored Program Computer
The EDVAC, EDSAC and UNIVAC were the
first computers to use the stored program
concept
They used vacuum tubes so they were too
expensive and too large for households to own
and afford
68. EDVAC
It took days to change
ENIAC's program.
Eckert and Mauchly's next
teamed up with the
mathematician John von
Neumann to design
EDVAC, which pioneered
the stored program.
After ENIAC and EDVAC
came other computers with
humorous names such as
ILLIAC, JOHNNIAC, and, of
course, MANIAC
69. UNIVAC-1951
The UNIVAC computer was
the first commercial (mass
produced) computer.
In the 50's, UNIVAC (a
contraction of "Universal
Automatic Computer") was
the household word for
"computer" just as "Kleenex"
is for "tissue".
UNIVAC was also the first
computer to employ
magnetic tape.
70. UNIVAC-1951
First commercial computer - Between 1951
and 1958, 47 UNIVAC I computers were
25 feet by 50 feet in
size
5,600 tubes,
18,000 crystal diodes
300 relays
Internal storage
capacity of 1,008
fifteen bit words was
achieved using 126
mercury delay lines
72. UNIVAC Mercury delay unit (1 of
7)
UNIVAC mercury delay units containing 18 delay
lines, each of which stored 120 bits. Total of
2,160 bits, or 144 fifteen bit words per memory
unit.
74. IBM 701 EDPM Computer-1953
IBM enters the
market with its first
large scale
electronic computer.
It was designed to
be incomparable
with IBM's existing
punch card
processing system,
so that it would not
cut into IBM's
75. FORTRAN-1954
John Backus & IBM invent
the first successful high
level programming
language, and compiler,
that ran on IBM 701
computers.
FORmula TRANslation
was designed to make
calculating the answers to
scientific and math
problems easier.
76. The Future of Computers?
IBM had commissioned this study to determine
whether it should bother developing this new
invention into one of its standard products (up until
then computers were one-of-a-kind items built by
special arrangement).
Aiken's prediction wasn't actually so bad as there
were very few institutions (principally, the
government and military) that could afford the cost
of what was called a computer in 1947.
He just didn't foresee the micro-electronics
revolution which would allow something like an IBM
Stretch computer of 1959:
79. Aug 20 200779
1947 –The transistor
Invented by William
Shockley (seated) John
Bardeen & Walter
Brattain at Bell Labs.
The transistor replaces
bulky vacuum tubes
with a smaller, more
reliable, and power
saving solid sate circuit.
80. Second Generation
Computers
In 1947, the transistor
was invented
The transistor made
computers smaller, less
expensive and
increased calculating
speeds.
81. Second Generation
Computers
Second generation
computers also saw a
new way data was stored
Punch cards were
replaced with magnetic
tapes and reel to reel
machines
82. Integrated Circuit-1958
Jack Kilby at Texas
Instruments & Robert
Noyce at Fairchild
semiconductor
independently invent the
first integrated circuits or
“the chip”.
Jack Kilby was awarded
the National Medal of
Science and was inducted
into the National Inventors
Hall of Fame, and
received the 2000 Nobel
Prize in Physics for his
work on the integrated
circuit.
83. Third Generation Computers used Integrated Circuits (chips).
Integrated Circuits are transistors, resistors, and capacitors
integrated together into a single “chip”
Integrated Circuit-1958
84. Third Generation Computers 1964-
1971
Transistors were replaced
by integrated circuits(IC)
One IC could replace
hundreds of transistors
This made computers
even smaller and faster.
Operating System
86. 1962 – First computer game &
word processor
Steve Russell at MIT
invents Spacewar, the first
computer game running
on a DEC PDP-1.
Because the PDP-1 had a
typewriter interface,
editors like TECO (Text
Editor and Corrector)
were written for it.
Steve Piner and L. Peter
Deutsch produced the first
“word processor” called
Expensive Typewriter
(MIT's PDP-1 cost
$100,000).
87. 1964 – The mouse and window
concept
Douglas Engelbart
demonstrates the worlds
first “mouse”,
nicknamed after the
“tail”.
SRI (Stanford
Research
Institute) received
a patent on the
mouse in 1970,
and licensed it to
apple for $40,000.
88. 1970 – Intel 1103 Dynamic Memory
Chip
Worlds first
commercially available
dynamic memory chip,
1024 bytes or 1KB
89. Intel 4004 Microprocessor-
1971
Worlds first microprocessor with
2,300 transistors, had the same
processing power as the 3,000
cubic-foot ENIAC.
four-bit chunks (four 1’s or 0’s)
108Khz
Called “Microchip”
90. Computer Programming in the
’70’s
If you learned computer
programming in the
1970's, you dealt with
what today are called
mainframe
computers, such as
the IBM 7090 (shown
below), IBM 360, or
IBM 370.
91. Time-Sharing
There were 2 ways to
interact with a mainframe.
The first was called time
sharing because the
computer gave each user a
tiny sliver of time in a round-
robin fashion.
Perhaps 100 users would
be simultaneously logged
on, each typing on a
teletype such as the
following:
92. What is a Microchip?
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSIC)
Transistors, resistors, and capacitors
4004 had 2,250 transistors
Pentium IV has 42 MILLION transistors
Each transistor 0.13 microns (10-6 meters)
93. 4th Generation – 1971-present
MICROCHIPS!
Getting smaller and smaller, but we are still
using microchip technology
94. 1973-1976 – Ethernet
Robert Metcalfe at
Xerox invents Ethernet
so that multiple
computers can talk to a
new laser printer.
Originally, Ethernet
used a large coaxial
cable and ran at
3Mbit/sec.
Ethernet today runs
over twisted pair
(usually CAT5, or
CAT6) and can achieve
speeds of
10Megabit/sec to
1Gigabit (1000
Mbit/sec).
95. Birth of Personal Computers -
1975
256 byte memory
(not Kilobytes or
Megabytes)
2 MHz Intel 8080
chips
Just a box with
flashing lights
cost $395 kit, $495
assembled.
96. 1974/1975 – Personal
Computers
Scelbi Mark-8 Altair
and IBM 5100
computers are first
marketed to
individuals (as
opposed to
corporations). They
are followed by the
Apple I,II, TRS-80,
and Commodore Pet
computers by 1977.
98. 1978/1979 – First individual
productivity software
VisiCalc
Spreadsheet
software and
WordStar word
processor are the
“killer applications”
for personal
computers,
especially for small
business owners.
99. 1981 – IBM PC
The IBM PC is introduced
running the Microsoft Disk
Operating System (MS-DOS)
along with CP/M-86. The IBM
PC's open architecture made it
the de-facto standard platform,
and it was eventually replaced
by inexpensive clones.
IBM-Intel-Microsoft joint
venture
First wide-selling personal
computer used in business
CPU: Intel 8088 @ 4.77 MHz
RAM: 16 kB ~ 640 kB
Price: $5,000 - $20,000
One or two floppy disk drives
100. 1984 – Apple Macintosh
Apple introduces
the first successful
consumer computer
with a WIMP user
interface (Windows
Icons Mouse &
Pointer), modelled
after the
unsuccessful Xerox
Alto computer.
Motorola 68000
@8Mhz
128KB Ram
US$1,995 to
US$2,495
101. Computers Progress
UNIVAC
(1951-1970)
Mits
Altair
(1975)
IBM PC
(1981)
Macintosh
(1984)
Pentium
IV
Circuits Integrated
Circuits
2 Intel
8080
Microchip
Intel 8088
Microchip
- 29,000
Transistors
Motorola
68000
Intel P-IV
Microchip
- 7.5 million
transistors
RAM
Memory
512 K 265 Bytes 256 Kb 128Kb 256 MB
Speed 1.3 MHz 2 KHz 4.77 MHz 8 Mhz 3200 MHz
= 3.2 GHz
Storage 100 MB
Hard Drive
8” Floppy
Drive
Floppy
Drive
Floppy
Drives
Hard
Drive,
Floppy,
CD-Rom
Size Whole
Room
Briefcase
(no monitor)
Briefcase
+ Monitor
Two
shoeboxes
(integrated
monitor)
Small
Tower
Cost $1.6 million $750 $1595 ~$4000 $1000 -
$2000
102. 1990s: Pentiums and Power
Macs
Early 1990s began penetration of computers into
every niche: every desk, most homes, etc.
Faster, less expensive computers paved way for
this
Windows 95 was first decent GUI for “PCs”
Macs became more PC compatible - easy file
transfers
Prices have plummeted
$2000 for entry level to $500
$6000 for top of line to $1500
103. Fourth Generation
Computers
In 1970 the Intel
Corporation invented the
Microprocessor:an entire
CPU on one chip
This led to
microcomputers-
computers on a desk
104. Teletype
A teletype was a motorized
typewriter that could
transmit your keystrokes to
the mainframe and then
print the computer's
response on its roll of paper.
You typed a single line of
text, hit the carriage return
button, and waited for the
teletype to begin noisily
printing the computer's
response
105. Batch-Mode Processing
The alternative to time
sharing was batch mode
processing, where the
computer gives its full
attention to your program.
In exchange for getting the
computer's full attention at
run-time, you had to agree
to prepare your program off-
line on a key punch
machine which generated
punch cards.
106. Programming Today
But things changed
fast. By the 1990's a
university student would
typically own his own
computer and have
exclusive use of it in his
dorm room.
107. Microprocessor
This transformation was a
result of the invention of the
microprocessor.
A microprocessor (uP) is a
computer that is fabricated
on an integrated circuit (IC).
Computers had been
around for 20 years before
the first microprocessor was
developed at Intel in 1971.
108. Microprocessor
The micro in the name
microprocessor refers
to the physical size.
Intel didn't invent the
electronic computer, but
they were the first to
succeed in cramming
an entire computer on a
single chip (IC)
109. Integrated Circuits
The microelectronics
revolution is what
allowed the amount of
hand-crafted wiring
seen in the prior photo
to be mass-produced
as an integrated
circuit which is a small
sliver of silicon the size
of your thumbnail
110. Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits and
microprocessors
allowed computers to
be faster
This led to a new age of
computers
The first home-brew
computers is called the
ALTAIR 8800
122. What’s next for computers?
Use your imagination to come up with what the
next century holds for computers.
What can we expect in two years?
What can we expect in twenty years?
