PREADAMITES; - Bennie Blount Ministries

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Preface 

Supplementary Notes 

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PREADAMITES; 

OR A DEMONSTRATION OF 

THE EXISTENCE OF MEN BEFORE ADAM; 

CHAPTER I. SOME TRADITIONAL BELIEFS. 

TOGETHER WITH 

A STUDY OF THEIR CONDITION, ANTIQUITY, 

RACIAL AFFINITIES, 

AND PROGRESSIVE DISPERSION OVER THE EARTH. 

WITH CHARTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

BY ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 

AUTHOR OF "SKETCHES OF CREATION," "THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLU- 

TION," "THE RECONCILIATION OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION," 

"A GEOLOGICAL CHART," ETC. 

FOURTH EDITION 

1880 

CHICAGO: 

S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY 

LONDON: TRUBNER & CO. 

Some biblically-based beliefs touching primitive humanity These mostly accessible to scientific evidence, p. 2 

Conceivability of valid metaphysical evidence, p. 3 Recent origin of sciences bearing on above beliefs, p. 4 Increasing 

light afforded by the expanding sciences, p. 4 Our inquiry is how God acted, not how he was able to act, p. 5. 

CHAPTER II. BIBLICAL LANGUAGE. 

What must be shown if Adam is assumed to be the first human being, p. 7 Fallibility of the English Bible, p. 8 Various 

readings in the Hebrew texts, p. 8 The Bible, however, substantially uncorrupted, p. 9 The proper names in the tenth of 

Genesis not personal, but tribal and geographical, p. 10 Six reasons for this conclusion, pp. 11-15. 

CHAPTER III. THE HAMITES AND THEIR DISPERSION. 

The word KhaM, p. 16 Affiliations of Cush, p. 17 Affiliations of Mizraim, p. 20 Affiliations of Phut and Canaan, p. 21 

Historical dispersion of Hamites, p. 23 The Pelasgians in Greece, p. 24 The Etruscans in Italy, p. 25 Hamites in the

North of Africa, p. 26 In the East of Africa, p. 27 The Guanches, p. 28 Extension of the meaning of Ethiopia, p. 28. 

CHAPTER IV. THE SEMITES AND THEIR DISPERSION. 

The word SheM, p. 30 Affiliations of Elam, p. 30 Affiliations of Asshur, p. 31 Affiliations of Arphaxad, p. 31 

Affiliations of Lud and Aram p. 34 Historical dispersion of Semites, p. 85. 

CHAPTER V. THE JAPHETITES AND THEIR DISPERSION. 

The word laPheTt, p. 38 Affiliations of Gonier, p. 38 Affiliaations of Magog, p. 39 Affiliations of Javan, p. 40 

Affiliations of Tubal, Meshech and Tiras, p. 42 Historical dispersion of Japhetites, p. 43 The Asiatic Aryans, p. 43 The 

Mediterranean stream of Aryans, p. 44 The Northern stream of Aiyans, p. 45 The Scythic branch of this stream, p. 47 

Summary of Aryan movements in Europe, p. 48 Explanation of "Chart of Dispersions," p. 50. 

CHAPTER VI. PRINCIPAL TYPES OP MANKIND. 

Tabular Conspectus, p. 52 The White Race, p. 53 The Dravidians, p. 54 The Mongoloids, Malay Family, p. 57 The 

MalayoChinese, Chinese and Japanese Families, p. 60 The Altaic Family, p. 62 The Bearing's Family, p. 64 The 

American Family, p. 66 The Negroes, p. 68 The Fundi and Fulbe, p. 70 The Hottentots and Bushmen, p. 71 The 

Australians, p. 73 The Papuans, p. 74 Table of population, p. 76 Influence of hybridism, p. 77 Racial blendings often 

incomplete, p. 80 The extirpation of races, p. 80 Miscigenesis as a political expedient in the United States, p. 81 

Hybridism results in deterioration, p. 83 Testimonies of Von Tschudi, Seemann, Kneeland, Norris, Smith and Knox, p. 

83 Antagonizing tendencies toward unification and differentiation of races, p. 85 Question of the value of human 

distinctions, p. 86. 

CHAPTER VII. LIMITED SCOPE OF BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Resume' of genesiacal dispersion, p. 88 Its limited extent presents great difficulties to the popular belief, p. 89 The 

genesiacal dispersion not intended to cover all peoples then existing, p. 90 Have we discovered the utmost limits of the 

genesiacal chart? p. 90 The primitive Ethiopia did not spread over the interior of Africa, p. 91 The word is Greek, not 

Hebrew, p. 91 The use of the word Gush implies an Asiatic country, p. 91 Examination of cases supposed to refer to an 

African Cush, p. 91 The import of KSh as a name of Egypt, p. 95. 

CHAPTER VIII. A GLANCE AT HEBREW CHRONOLOGY. 

Time required by the theory that Adam was the first man and a white man, p. 98 Epoch of Creation according to 

various authorities, p. 99 From Adam to the Deluge, p. 101 From the Deluge to Christ, p. 102 Ages of the Patriarchs, p. 

103 Uncertainty of Hebrew chronology, p. 104 Opinions of orthodox authorities, p. 106. 

CHAPTER IX. ELEMENTS OP EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. 

Egyptian antiquity inconvenient to traditional beliefs, p. 109 Hence a distinction into long and short chronologers, p. 

109 Sources of Egyptian chronology, p. 110 Manetho, and the question of consecutiveness in the dynasties, p. 110 

Tablets, papyri, genealogical lists and stelae, p. 112 Various determinations of the "Era of Menes," p. 114 Dynastic 

parallelisms of various authorities, p. 114 Table of Egyptian Dynasties Parallelized, p. 116 Table of dates of the "Era 

of Menes," p. 117 Lepsiusas a representative of moderate views, p. 117 Geological age of the Nilotic delta, p. 118 Its 

bearing on the first settlement of the delta, p. 119 Indications of prolonged national existence before Menes, p. 120 

Time required for the development of settled monarchies, p. 121 Bearing of the " Sothic Period " on Egyptian 

chronology, p. 123 Characteristics of the first four dynasties, p. 124 Of the fifth, sixth and twelfth, p. 126 Of the 

dynasties of the Shepherd Kings, p. 126 Of the dynasties of the New Empire, p. 126 Egyptian miscigenesis, p. 127 

Table of most ancient epochs, p. 128 Primitive chronology of the Chinese, p. 129 Mythological chronologies, p. 129, 

note.

CHAPTER X. PRENOACHITE RACES. 

Genesis silent in regard to Prenoachites not of the line of Adam, p. 132 But it contains some significant implications, p. 

133 Events happening before Abraham, p. 133 What is implied in the existence of great cities soon after the Flood, p. 

135 The descendants of Cain in existence after the Flood, p. 136 Non-biblical evidence, p. 137 Traces of Turanian 

antediluvians, p. 137 Citations from F. Lenormant, p. 140 Remnants of Mongoloid aborigines, p. 143 Indications of 

Dravidian antediluvians, p. 144 Prenoachite populations in Egypt and in Europe, p. 145 Statements from ancient 

writers, p. 145 Mongoloid character of prenoachite Europeans, p. 147 The Basques as a remnant of them, p. 149 

Prehistoric skulls of Europe also Mongoloid, p. 151 Modern facts confirmatory of this conclusion, p. 153 The Deluge, 

consequently, -of local extent, p. 154. 

CHAPTER XI. RACE DISTINCTIONS. 

Wide isolation of the Black races from the White, p. 156 I. Adam a white man, p. 158 Legends of a black Adam, p. 

158 Race characters of the biblical Adam, p. 159 Examination of the text, p. 159 11. Nature and amount of racial 

distinctions, p. 161 1. Anatomical comparisons: Cranial capacities, p. 162 Cephalic index, p. 165 Auricular radii, p. 168 

Projections, p. 169 Prognathism, p. 170 Sundry anatomical characters, p. 171 2. Physiological comparisons: Growth 

and strength, p. 175 Indolence of Negro temperament, p. 175 Inferior sensibility to medicinal agents, p. 177 Feebleness 

of the Mulatto, p. 178 Insusceptibility of the Negro to certain classes of diseases, p. 180 3. Psychic comparisons : 

Mental sluggishness of Negroes, p. 181 Testimony of a teacher, p. 183 Correlation of race to environment, p. 184 This 

correlation is far from exact, p. 185. 

CHAPTER XII. BIBLICAL ANTIQUITY OP RACE DISTINCTIONS. 

Biblical statements supposed to imply Preadamites, p. 188 Reasons why so supposed, p. 189 Cain's wife, p. 190 The 

city of Enoch, p. 193 Wives of Irad and Lamech, p. 193 The "sons of God " were sons of Preadamites, p. 194. 

CHAPTER XIII. NON-BIBLICAL ANTIQUITY OF RACE DISTINCTIONS. 

Egyptian and Assyro-Chaldsean monuments explicit, p. 197 The four races known to the Egyptians, p. 198 Indications 

from the pharaonic portraits, p. 200 Representations of foreign personages, p. 201 Representations of the 

Mediterranean race, p. 201 Representations of typical Egyptians, p. 203 Portraits of Negroes, 205 Mention of Negroes 

in the Twelfth Dynasty, p. 207 Negroes pictured in the Eleventh Dynasty, p. 208 Negro auxiliaries in the Sixth 

Dynasty, p. 208 Summary of the facts, p. 209. 

CHAPTER XIV. PREADAMITE RACES. 

Table of first-known advents of human types, p. 211 Table of intervals from Adam and the Deluge to first-known 

advents of human types, p. 212 Comparison of these dates with the "orthodox" chronology, p. 213 The early Negro 

type especially considered, p. 214 The subject considered from the stand-point of a local Deluge, p. 215 The 

persistence of the Negro similar to that of other organic types, p. 216 All types, however, subject to secular variation, 

p. 217 Negro transformations real, but not confined to 2000 years, p. 217 Intervals to first-known advents of human 

types on the basis of the Lepsian chronology, p. 218 Absurd results of comparisons of these dates with the orthodox 

chronology, p. 219 The other Black races, preadamic as well as the Negroes, p. 221. 

CHAPTER XV. HAMITIC ORIGIN OF NEGROES CONSIDERED. 

Ostensible ground for the opinion undiscovered, p. 222 Supposed grounds: 1. The genealogical lists in Genesis not 

complete, p. 223 2. The curse pronounced by Noah, p. 225 3. The significance of the word KhaM, p. 226 4. Early racial 

changes were perhaps more rapid than later ones, p. 227 Reply to this argument, p. 230 The palaeontological evidences 

against pristine plasticity of natures, p. 232 Apparently sudden advents into existence probably illusory, p. 234 African 

varieties prove hybridism, not transition from Adam, p. 236 Linguistic diversification no proof of plasticity of 

organism, p. 240 The proof of Preadauiitism essentially biblical, p. 242.

CHAPTER XVI. NEGRO INFERIORITY. 

The inferiority of the Negro not caused by oppression, p. 244 Cephalic indications of Negro inferiority : cranial 

capacity, cephalic index, non-closure of sutures, prognathism, p. 245 Other points of inferior structure, p. 247 Cerebral 

inferiority, p. 249 Intellectual character of the American Negro, p. 251 The African Negro in his physical aspect, p. 253 

Deficiency of results during the Negro's race existence, p. 256 The physical conditions of the continent not bad, p. 258 

Useful plants and animals abundant, p. 259 These the natives have failed to utilize, except to a limited extent, p. 260 

America and its aborigines in contrast with Africa, p. 262 Aids offered by contact with Asiatic civilization, p. 263 The 

civilizable Maories contrasted with the Negroes, p. 264 Summation of the evidences, p. 265 The conclusion entirely 

free from prejudice, p. 266 Similar inferiority of the other Black races, p. 2C6. 

CHAPTER XVII. DO RACES DEGENERATE? 

I. Progress the law of organic life. 1. Implied in the derivative origin of species, p. 269 2. Implied equally in the fiat 

theory of specific origins, p. 270 3. Implied in the educability of intelligence, p. 272 4. The law and the fact of progress 

revealed in organic history, p. 273 5. The law and the fact of progress revealed in human history, p. 273 II. 

Deteriorations are partial and abnormaL Structural deterioration discriminated from cultural, p. 274 The inferiority of 

the Negro is structural, p. 275 Cultural deterioration defined, p. 276 Cases of deterioration are generally cultural. 

Examples, p. 277 Remarks on a case cited by Dr. Whedon, p. 277 But even cultural degradation never becomes racewide, 

p. 281 Re'sume', 282. 

CHAPTER XVIII. THEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OP PREADAMITISM. 

The conclusion both scientific and scriptural, p. 283 1. A discovery of ethnic facts has no relation to the nature of 

moral plans, p. 284 2-3. The Negro recognized as subject of salvation, p. 284 4. Preadamitism does not mean plurality 

of origins or of species, p. 284 5. Adam created by derivation, p. 285 6. A plan retroactive from Christ to Adam may 

have reached further back, p. 285 Whedon on the harmony of Preadamitism with " the scheme of redemption," p. 286 

Dr. M'Causland on the same, p. 288 Bishop Marvin on the extra-mundane efficacy of the " plan of salvation," p. 289 

Chalmers, Miller, Brewster and others, 291 Conceptions of Genesis coordinated with the doctrine of Preadamitism, p. 

293. 

CHAPTER XIX. GENEALOGY OF THE BLACK RACES. 

The genetic relationship of races generally admitted, p. 297 Interest of remnants of tribes and races, p. 298 

Fundamental basesof racial classification, p. 298 Classification based on skin and hair, p. 299 Haeckel's classification, 

p. 299 A table of affiliated classification of types of mankind, p. 302 The Australians assumed as the lowest race, p. 

307 The two tufted-haired races r p. 307 Curious resemblances of Hottentots and Papuans, p. 308 Not, however, to be 

taken as evidence of close affinity, p. 309 Transition from Hottentots to Negroes, p. 310 The Papuans, p. 310. 

CHAPTER XX. GENEALOGY OF THE BROWN RACES. 

An apparent transition between Mongoloids and Papuans, p. 311 A more obvious transition between Dravida and 

Australians, p. 312 Suggested affinity between Mongoloids and Hottentots, p. 313 Diagram of suggested affinities 

between the Black and the Brown races, p. 314 Affinity between Dravida and Mongoloids, p. 314 A diagram of more 

probable affinities between the Australian and Brown races, p. 315 The Malay Mongoloids nearest the Black races, p. 

315 Intermediate position of the Indo-Chinese, p. 317 The Japanese, Coreans and Tunguses closely related, p. 318 

Aboriginal Americans. The divergent Eskimo, p. 320 Transition to Asiatics, p. 320 Affinity between Namollo and 

Chinese and Japanese, 322 Ale-uts and Japanese, p. 323 Linguistics as accessory in ethnology, p. 324 The related 

Tlinkets and their allies, p. 326 The affiliation extends to the Selish and'Sahaptin Families, p. 328 The Californian 

tribes mutually related, and allied also to the other Pacific coast Indians, p. 328 Facility of linguistic changes among 

west coast Indians, p. 329 All the west coast Indians closely related and Mongoloid, p. 330 Belong also in one great

group with the civilized Indians, p. 333 Even the Patagonians related to Eskimo, p. 337 The mound-builders belonged 

to the same type, p. 339 The Hunting Indians. Tinneh Family, p. 342 The Algonkin, Iroquois, Sioux and other 

Families, p. 342 Ethnic relations of the Hunting Indians and the Polynesians, p. 343 Difficulties met, 344. 

CHAPTER XXI. GENEALOGY OF THE WHITE RACE. 

The Brown races probably preadamic, p. 346 Approximation of the Adamic race to the Mongoloid Turks, p. 347 More 

closely approximated to the Dravida, p. 348 Citation of authorities, p. 348 Genealogical tree of types of mankind, p. 

352 Preadamitism not dependent on any genealogical scheme, p. 351. 

CHAPTER XXII. THE CRADLE OF HUMANITY AND THE DISPERSION OF THE BLACK RACES. 

Indications of a primitive point of divergence of humanity, p. 354 Method of ascertaining the location of this point, p. 

355 Bearing of the geographical distribution of Primates, p. 357 A lost continental area in the Indian Ocean, p. 359 The 

conclusion an. ticipated on more general grounds, p. 359 The distribution of palms points to a similar conclusion, p. 

360 Lemuria the probable cradle of humanity, p. 361 Further reference to obliterated land areas, p. 362 The primitive 

eastward and westward stems, p. 363 The Australian stem, p. 364 Former extent of the Australian type, p. 3G4 

Derivation of the Tasmaniaus and Papuans, p. 365 Hypothesis that the Papuans preceded the Australians, p. 366 

Ramifications of the African stem, p. 366 Advent of Hottentots, p. 367 Grounds for delineation of African movements, 

367. 

CHAPTER XXIII. DISPERSION OP ASIATIC MONGOLOIDS. 

Earliest ramifications of the Mongoloid type, p. 369 Dispersion of the Malays, p. 369 Malayo-Chinese origin, p. 371 

Prechinese and Chinese movements, p. 371 All the Turkish tribes, on the contrary, have moved southwestward, p. 372 

The Mongols, also, have always swarmed from the northeast, p. 374 The Tunguses of northern origin, p. 374 Routes 

pursued by ethnic movements in Asia, p. 375 There must have been a primitive northeastward current, p. 375 The 

radiant point of Asiatic migrations, p. 376 The Miaotse, the Coreans and Japanese, p. 376 Max Mttller's linguistic 

theory of Asiatic movements, p. 376 Movements of Ural-Altaics, p. 377 Origin of the European troglodytes and their 

wanderings, p. 377 Plato's account of Atlantis, p. 379 Corroboration from Theopompos, Timagenes and Marcellus, p. 

380 Modern soundings reveal the stump of Atlantis, p. 381 The populations of Atlantis, p. 382. 

CHAPTER XXIV. DISPERSION OP AMERICAN MONGOLOIDS. 

Ethnic relations of American indigenes, p. 383 Opinions concerning the origin of Americans, p. 384 Opinions 

concerning the origin of American civilizations, p. 386 Affinities of Sedentes as a datum for conclusions touching 

migrations, p. 388 General movements of Eskimo, p. 388 Movements of occidental tribes, p. 390 Movements of 

Mexican peoples The Toltecatlac Family, p. 391 The Nahuatlac Family, p. 392 Movements extended into central 

America, p. 393 Into the Isthmus and thence to Peru, p. 394 Indications in Chili and Patagonia, p. 395 Conclusion, p. 

396 Hostility between Sedentea and Vagantea, p. 396 Practicability of routes by Behring's Straits and sea, p. 398 

Polynesian route to America, p. 400 Asiatic origin of Sedentes, p. 404 Polynesian origin of Vagantes, p. 405. 

CHAPTER XXV. DISPERSION OP THE DRAVIDIANS AND MEDITERRANEANS. 

Dispersion of Dravidiaus, p. 407 Point of divergence of the Adamites, p. 408 The dispersion of the Adamites, bleuds 

itself with the dispersion of the Noachites, already traced, p. 408 Assumptions of a non-Asiatic origin for 

Mediterraneans, p. 409 Czarnotski, Lelewel, Schulz, Onialius d'Halloy, Benfey, Fligier and Poesche, p. 410. 

CHAPTER XXVI. CONDITION OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 

Man's educability, p. 412 Man's advancement from lowest racial condition, but not necessarily from a brutal condition, 

p. 412 The European Troglodytes did not exemplify primitive humanity, p. 413 Their physical characteristics, p. 413 

Their social and intellectual characteristics, p. 414 Their (esthetic characteristics, p. 416 Their religious indications, p. 

417 The low grade of prehistoric man in Europe was cultural, not structural, p. 417 These men probably quite inferior

to the primitive Adamites, p. 418. 

CHAPTER XXVII. ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

Three different aspects assumed by the discussion, p. 419 I. The Epoch of the First Man undiscoverable, p. 419 II. 

Epoch of the Stone Folk. Its assumed remoteness, p. 420 This assumption erroneous, p. 420 Grounds of the opinion of 

the high antiquity of the Stone Folk. 1. Preglacial remains of other animals mistaken for human. Scratched bones of 

Saint Prest, p. .422 Scratched bones of extinct mammals in the marls of Le"ognan, p. 422 Supposed Miocene markings 

at Puance" and Thenay, p. 423 2. Human remains erroneously supposed preglacial. Human bones at Le Puyen-Velay, 

p. 423 Flints in the river drifts of the Somme, p. 424 Human bones at Colle del Vento, p. 425 Human pelvis at 

Natchez, p. 425 Man lived in Europe during the decline of the continental glacier, p. 426 Probable Pliocene remains of 

man in California, p. 426 Relation of mankind to events of the Glacial period, p. 429 Men crowded northward on the 

retreat of the continental glacier, p. 430 Grounds of supposed high remoteness of Glacial period. I. Astronomical 

Hypotheses, p. 431 II. Contemporaneousness of man with animals now extinct, p. 432 Extinctions known to have taken 

place in modern times, p. 433 Many species plainly aproaching extinction, p. 434 Other extinctions apparently recent, 

p. 435 III. Magnitude of geological changes since man's advent. First impressions, p. 436 But great events have taken 

place in times geologically recent, p. 437 Some lessons from Alpine glaciers,, p. 437 Glacier-relics in the United 

States, p. 439 Sundry recent but great geological events, p. 439 Attempts to reach a numerical expression for man's 

antiquity in Europe, p. 441 Historical deductions accordant with the final result from archaeology, p. 442. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. THE PATRIARCHAL PERIODS. 

The demand for more time than the Usherian chronology affords,, p. 446 Demand arising from fourth chapter of 

Genesis, p. 446 Similar demand created by the narrative of the tenth chapter, p. 447 And again by the eleventh chapter, 

p. 448 Crawford's exposition of patriarchal chronology, p.449 This sustained by the known longevity of Egyptians and 

Chinese in ancient times, p. 452 Chronological result, p. 453 Its establishment helpful to the rational credibility of the 

Pentateuch, p. 453. 

CHAPTER XXIX. PREADAMITISM IN LITERATURE. 

The doctrine of Preadamitism first deduced from Scripture, p. 454 The writings of Peyrerius, p. 454 A London work on 

Preadamites in 1657, p. 455 Biblical authority in science 200 years ago, p. 455 Narrow views of the Bible still in 

existence, p. 456 The rejection of collateral aids a virtual attack on inspiration, p. 456 Repressive theology silencing 

Peyrerius, p. 457 Principal points in the works of Peyrerius, p. 458 Positions now accepted or defensible on a 

Scriptural basis, p. 460 Bory de St. Vincent, Hombron and Van Amringe, p. 461 " Genesis of the Earth and Man," p. 

462 Examination of its positions, p. 463 Articles in periodicals, p. 468 M'Causland's "Adam and the Adamite," p. 468 

Dr. D. D. Whedon on the question of Preadamites, p. 470 Dr. J. P. Thompson's suggestion, p. 471 Summary of the 

present work, p. 472. 

Illustrations

Preface 

I have attempted, in the present work, to discuss, without prejudice, the evidences bearing on the question of 

Preadamites. Having no interest, at the outset of my study of the subject, to reach either an affirmative or a negative 

conclusion, I am conscious of the exercise of a judicial candor in every branch of the argument. It is true that since the 

public announcement of the results of my earlier study, some provocations may have arisen moving me to defend the 

positions assumed; but I can state, unreservedly, that the positions were assumed without the incitement of a 

provocation. I hope, therefore, to have contributed something to the enlargement of that body of imperishable truth 

which the popular mind, in spite of the fetters of tradition, is learning to approve and accept. 

The central idea of the work is human preadamitism; all other views presented are subsidiary or collateral. The thesis 

implies that the characterization of Adam in the document which has given us the name, is such that the name cannot 

be applied to the first progenitor of the human kind, and that all the collateral statements either involve or permit the 

derivation of Adam from an older race. But the defense of the thesis does not rest, as it once did, on the purely 

linguistic interpretation of the Bible. We have now the facts of race-histories, and the discovered laws of animal life, 

past and present, to summon to the sanction and support of the conclusion. I have not contented myself with the 

employment of the direct argument, but have attempted to show that the old hypothesis of the descent of the Black 

races from Ham is equally unscriptural and unscientific. Finally, assuming the thesis proved, I have endeavored to 

gratify the natural and intelligent curiosity which expresses itself in the questions: Who, then, were the first men? 

Where did they appear, and how long since? How have the races come into existence, and what has been the method 

of their dispersion over the earth? These questions necessarily lead us to the very borders of the field of recognized 

facts, and even into the domain of speculation; but I hope I have in most cases presented views which coordinate the 

facts in a rational conception, if I have not enunciated conclusions which will stand the test of future investigation. I 

hope, also, that on some of these themes I have presented groupings of the facts and tentative generalizations which 

will interest the strictly scientific inquirer. In any event, I desire the reader to consider that the defense of the main 

thesis is not involved in any of the hazard of the speculative suggestions brought forward in the sequel. 

It is proper, also, to direct the reader's attention to what I have not affirmed, however conjecturally; and I feel the need 

of this the more because I have not happened to meet with a single criticism adverse to my conclusion, as heretofore 

announced, which did not err in its representation of my views. I will not moralize on the circumstance that opinions 

which we disapprove must be so generally forced into the company of other opinions which are sure to provoke 

general abhorrence. In the present case, for instance, I have not assumed a position hostile to the Bible; it would have 

been irrational to do so, since it is the assertion of the Bible which determines what we are to understand by Adam. 

Had the Bible affirmed explicitly that Adam had no progenitor, I should simply have declared the facts of the 

Genesiacal history inconsistent with the affirmation, as the facts of science would also be. I have even devoted a 

chapter to the proof that preadamitism is neither inconsistent with the Bible nor with the orthodoxy of approved 

divines. More particularly, I have not disputed the divine creation of Adam, even in maintaining that he had a human 

father and mother. I have not impaired the unity of mankind, but have removed the incredibility of that doctrine as 

grounded in the descent of Negroes and Australians from Noah and Adam. I have not affirmed —even like 

M'Causland and other ecclesiastical polygenists — that mankind, one in moral nature, are not one in origin; since I 

hold that the blood of the first human stock flows in the veins of every living human being. I have not excluded the 

Preadamites and their descendants from the benefits of the "plan of redemption," since I maintain that all mankind are 

equally the subjects of redemption. I have not degraded Adam below the level on which the Bible places him, since I 

do not recognize him as the starting-point of humanity. Finally, I have not pictured man as risen from the organic 

grade of a brute, since I wished only to show that he was in existence before the "first man" of the Hebrews. 

These disavowals are explicit, but I am prepared to hear one critic after another proclaiming that such views are the

logical consequences of the positions assumed; that somehow, in his way of thinking, they all go together; that in short, 

I need some watchful and judicious monitor to inform me what I do believe. 

In entering upon this work I entertained the conception of a volume which should be unimpeachably popular, but I 

soon felt the propriety of accompanying the argument with some array of scientific support and authoritative opinion. 

To have omitted such sanctions would have opened the door to flippant denials of the truth of my statements, and the 

necessity would still have arisen to show what ground I have for affirming as I do. The style of the book, nevertheless, 

remains strictly popular, while the references made will be found of interest to all who desire to consider the question 

of preadamitism upon its merits. 

I am indebted to several persons for the original ethnic portraits with which the pages of the work are enriched. 

Among them, I take pleasure in mentioning Prof. M. W. Harrington, late of the Imperial University at Peking; Prof. J. 

B. Steere, who has recently returned from a four years' journey around the world; Dr. E. Bessels, of the Polaris 

Expedition; Rev. S. E. Bishop, of Honolulu; Miss Luella Andrews, late of Honolulu; Mr. D. Sewell, of Sonora, 

California, and Mr. W. H. Jackson, Photographer of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the 

Territories, under the direction of Dr. F. V. Hayden. 

I cannot refrain from adding the acknowledgment of great obligation to the publishers for their generous and 

enlightened conception of the proper illustration and mechanical execution of the work. 

THE AUTHOR. 

Ann Abbor, Michigan, April 13,1880.

Supplementary Notes 

1. The Babylonian Adam, p. 158.— In citing from the Babylonian "legend of creation" I overlooked the fact that tablet 

" K 3364" is one of those of which Mr. George Smith has given us a decipherment in " The Chaldcean Account of 

Genesis" p. 78 seq. 

The legend to which this tablet belongs has a further interesting bearing on the question discussed in the present work. 

The following comments are from the work cited (pp. 85, 86): "The race of human beings spoken of is the zalmatqaqadi, 

or dark race, and in various other fragments of these legends they are called Admi or Adami, which is exactly 

the name given to the first man of Genesis (Preadamites, pp. 159,195). The word Adam, used in these legends for the 

first human being, is evidently not a proper name, but is used only as a term for mankind." The remarkable occurrence 

of names so nearly identical in the literatures of the Hebrews, Babylonians and Indians, see p. 407, (Ad was the reputed 

father, also, of the primitive Arabians,) to designate the first representatives of man, in a certain sense, is almost 

demonstration that the three legends had a common origin and refer to the same events; and the fact that the name was 

employed by the Babylonians in an ethnic rather than individual application, implies that it is so to be understood in 

Hebrew history. (Compare the views expressed on p. 408.) 

Mr. George Smith continues: "It has already been pointed out by Sir Henry Rawlinson that the Babylonians recognized 

two principal-races, the Adamu, or dark race, and the Sarku, or light race, probably in the same manner that two races 

are mentioned in Genesis, the sons of Adam and the sons of God. It appears incidentally from the fragments of 

inscriptions, that it was the race of Adam, or the dark race, which was believed to have fallen; but there is at present no 

clue to the position of the other race in their system." The characterization of the Adami as a dark race is quite in 

accord with the biblical description of Adam. There may be a wide difference between "dark" and " black." A dark 

color may easily be the ruddy, sun-burnt tint attributed to the biblical Adam, and known to characterize the Hamites. 

The identification of the Sarku, or light race, presents difficulties. I am inclined to dissent from the intimation that they 

answer to the Genesiacal " sons of God." These, as I have maintained (pp. 194, 463), were not Adamic, and 

consequently were not light colored. I venture the conjecture that the " dark " race (in some passages "dark races") 

embraced the Hamites and the Semites, while the Sarku were the white Japhetites bordering the dark races on the 

north. It may even be that the dark non-Adamites were grouped, in a color-classification, with the Hamites and 

Semites, without implying a belief in any common Adamic descent. It is said to have been a dark race which fell, but 

if the white race sprang from the dark, it would inherit the moral taint which entered the blood of the original offender. 

2. Physical character of Australians.—I have already intimated (p. 251) that reliable observers ascribe a better 

physical endowment to the normal Australians than was formerly attributed to them (Fig. 12, p. 73), and thus depict 

them as worthier to be the ethnic parents of the Dravida and grandparents of the Adamites. Dr. Pickering describes 

them as well formed and athletic. A fresh testimony to the same effect comes from Mr. Alexander Forrest, who has 

very recently completed a tour of exploration in northwestern Australia. He reports that in the region between the 

Fitzroy and Victoria rivers great numbers of the natives were seen, and for the greater part they were fine, large men, 

who had evidently never met Europeans before (Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1879, p. 436; 

American Naturalist, xiv, 309, April, 1880). 

3. Americans and American Civilization, chapters xx and xxiv.—When the chapters of this work relating to American 

Aborigines were placed in the printers' hands, I had not seen the important work of Professor John T. Short, entitled 

The North Americans of Antiquity, their Origin, Migrations and Type of Civilization, New York, 1879. This 

circumstance is to be regretted. It adds, however, to the interest of the conclusions in which I find myself in accord 

with Professor Short. The most noteworthy of these are the following: 1. The mound-builders were not red Indians 

(compare pp. 341, 343); 2. They were related to the Nahuas of Mexico (compare pp. 333, 339); 3. Man is not 

autochthonous in America (pp. 397 seq.), and American civilizations do not attain a high antiquity; 4. The ancient

Americans were not a single r maintained by Morton (pp. 338, 343). See, summary by Prof. 0. T. Mason in American 

Naturalist, xiv, 297, Apr. 1880. 

In this connection may be cited at once the most thorough and the most sumptuous work on ancient Peru which has 

ever appeared: Charles Wiener, Pe'rou et Bolivie, Recit de voyage suivi d'e'tudes archeologiques et ethnographiques, 

et de notes sur Vdcriture et les langues des populations indiennes; Ouvrage contenant plus de 1100 gravures, 27 

cartes et 18 plans; Paris, 1880. 

The following additional sources of information may be consulted: A. J. Conant, Footprints of Vanished Races in the 

Mississippi Valley. Illust., 8vo, St. Louis, 1879. On the origin of American animals and people, Prescott, Conquest of 

Mexico, Vol. III, Appendix, pt. i, and the references there given. On the origin of American civilization, Prescott, 

Conquest of Peru, Vol. I, p. 164 seq. and references. 

4. Northern Connection between Americans and Asiatics? pp. 398-400.—An elaborate paper bearing directly on the 

possibility and reality of extensive communication between America and the northern parts of Asia has been published 

by Charles Wolcott Brooks, entitled Japanese Wrecks, stranded and picked up adrift in the North Pacific Ocean, 

ethnologically, considered, as furnishing evidence of a constant infusion of Japanese blood among the Coast Tribes of 

Northwestern Indians. California Acad. Sci., 1876. Sixty instances of Japanese wrecks are enumerated, and imperfect 

information exists of many others. From many of these, Japanese sailors have found their way to American shores. 

5. American origin of Chinese.—I have alluded to the theory of an American origin for Old World populations (p. 

385). Mr. Charles Wolcott Brooks has advanced this theory in a paper entitled Origin of the Chinese Race. Philosophy 

of their Early Development, with an Inquiry into the Evidences of their American origin, suggesting the great Antiquity 

of Races on the American continent, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 1876. The argument is grounded on ethnic affinities, some 

apparent linguistic resemblances (see Otomi, p. 391), and the existence of the return current of the Kuro Siwo from the 

American coast.

Chapter 1 

Some Traditional Beliefs 

THERE exists a collection of very ancient Hebrew documents, in which an account is given of the origin of the world 

and its inhabitants. From a very remote period these documents were understood to teach the following things: 

1. That the world, with all it contains, was created by God. 

2. That this creation took place about 4,000 years before our era. 

3. That the work of creation extended over the period of six days. 

4. That the first man, Adam, was created on the sixth day. 

5. That the first woman, Eve, was formed of a rib taken from the side of Adam. 

6. That Adam lived nine hundred and thirty years, and his immediate posterity attained a similar longevity. 

7. That the primitive seat of the human species was in western central Asia. 

8. That after the lapse of about 1,656 years, a universal deluge destroyed all the posterity of Adam, except Noah and 

his family; and all animals, except those preserved in the "ark" with Noah. 

9. That all the existing races of men are descended from Noah. 

10. That the black races of Africa are descended from Ham, a son of Noah. 

With this traditional understanding of the Hebrew documents, our standard English translation of them was framed to 

give expression to such conceptions; and these have very generally been received as representing the facts touching the 

origin and early history of the world and its inhabitants. 

In glancing over this series of propositions, we are at once impressed by a remarkable circumstance. Save the 

enunciation of the supernatural origin of all things, these statements all relate to questions touching the order of the 

natural world. They concern things about which it is supposable something might be learned by observation and 

investigation. They are all subjects which fall under the legitimate cognizance of what we call "science." The truth of 

these nine propositions is neither self-evident nor to be confirmed by any a priori reasoning. The test of their truth 

must arise from investigations of the strictly scientific order. If we accept them as true, on the strength of ancient 

tradition or high authority, they are still secular truths, and fully amenable to the results of scientific research; and, 

moreover, tradition and authority are, in turn, amenable themselves to the test of rigorous examination.

The allegation that the world was originated about six thousand years ago, and that the process covered six literal days, 

is one which may be examined in all the light which the sciences of geology and cosmogony are able to throw upon it. 

That the first man came into existence but six thousand years ago, and, with his immediate successors, attained an age 

ten times as great as modern men, is a question to be examined in the light of anthropology, ethnology, archaeology 

and history. That the first woman was framed from a rib of the first man is a statement of the scientific order, which 

must be examined in the light of all organic analogies. That the western center of Asia was the primitive seat of the 

human species, can certainly be confirmed or discredited by researches touching early traditions, migrations and 

monumental records. That a deluge swept over the world 4,227 years ago which destroyed all animal life, except Noah 

and his family and the animals with him in the ark, is a proposition which it is perfectly legitimate to examine in the 

light of human and zoological history, and the relations of organic life to land, water, climate and other conditions. 

That the black and brown races are descended from a white ancestor, and that all their racial divergence has taken 

place within little more than 4,000 years, is a proposition which may be fairly tested by the analogies of what we have 

observed during the historic period. 

I wish also squarely to admit that, in a search after truth, we are not foreordained to that mode of investigation known 

as "scientific." If there be any other method of attaining to the discovery of truth, it is not only open to us, but candor 

compels us to avail ourselves of it. It is conceivable that psychology or metaphysics may afford ground for valid 

inference on certain points. It is proper to remember, also, that starting as we do, with a recognition of creative agency 

in the world, it is always allowable to suppose that any result not yet traceable to natural antecedents has come into 

existence by the direct action of supernatural power. It may be proper, also, to enunciate here the fundamental principle 

that, however remote, and through whatever number of links in the chain of causation the remotest discovered physical 

antecedent of an event may be, no physical antecedent can be viewed as essentially causal; and we are constrained by 

a philosophic necessity to posit self-existent and self-sufficient causation at every beginning. 

Viewing the nine propositions already cited as amenable to the method of scientific investigation, it is a fact of great 

significance that the forms of knowledge by which they are to be tested have all come into existence in modern times. 

The results attained through these avenues of research were not in possession of the world in the patristic age, nor in 

mediaeval times —nor even at the date of our standard translation of the sacred scriptures. Whatever light the modern 

sciences are admittedly capable of shedding upon these subjects was entirely wanting to King James' translators, in 

searching for the meaning of terms which belonged to a language then centuries in disuse. They were compelled to 

produce a version which expressed contemporary beliefs and conceptions. Any other version would have been 

pronounced incredible, absurd and antibiblical. 

These propositions relate to subjects in reference to which evidence is capable of accumulation through research. 

Modern researches having accumulated evidence, the ancient conceptions respecting the doctrines of Genesis have 

been considerably modified. It has been shown that the world and its inhabitants are vastly more than six thousand 

years old, and that their development extended over hundreds of thousands of years, instead of six days. Biblical 

scholars generally agree that the Hebrew text admits of interpretation in accordance with these conclusions. 

Again, it has been shown highly improbable, and organically impossible, that all the world should have been restocked 

from the posterity of the animals preserved in Noah's ark; and modern exegesis generally admits that the universal 

terms employed in the biblical description of the deluge refer only to the world of Hebrew tradition. As all the 

propositions enumerated relate to occurrences which transcend all knowledge in possession of the world before 

modern times, it would not be surprising if our biblical translators had failed, in still other instances, to seize upon the 

unknown idea, and render it in our vernacular. Accordingly, opinion is already divided respecting the total destruction 

of mankind by the deluge of Noah, and the descent of all existing races from the sons of Noah. Recent biblical studies 

have shown, also, that the great longevity of the patriarchs is a conception which may soon have to be abandoned. 

This will create a necessity for the adjustment of biblical chronology on some new basis. Should it result that human 

conceptions have not attained to the divine truth in a single one of the nine propositions, this will not prove that the 

divine truth was not contained in the original documents, but only that it so far transcended uninspired knowledge or 

apprehension that uninspired men have been unable to grasp it except through processes of slow ratiocination. Nor will

such a result prove the impossibility of such an origin and primeval history of things as Jew and Christian have 

commonly conceived. It must be held, on grounds deeper and firmer than any scientific inference, that all finite 

existence has been called into being by a Power which transcends the finite, and that such Power could have raised up 

the world as easily in six days as in six millions of years, and could have repopulated the earth from the life in Noah's 

ark, and could have suddenly blackened the skin of Ham's posterity. Admitting the omnipotence of the Creator, the 

inquiry which the human mind feels itself impelled to institute is concerning the methods which Omnipotence has 

actually pursued. The search for these methods is certainly worthier than the blind and stubborn adherence to 

traditional beliefs, which conflict with the results of observation and induction. We shall stand higher at the court of 

heaven for respecting the verdict of our God-given intelligence, than for taking up arms in defense of a fallible 

interpretation, which dethrones intellect and insults the Author of all truth.

Chapter 2 

Biblical Language 

I PROPOSE to conduct an inquiry respecting the tenability of the opinion that all mankind are descended from the 

biblical Adam. Obviously there are two alternative positions which may be assumed in reference to Adam. 

1. Adam was absolutely the first human being, and was, in every respect, such as to fill the requirements of that 

position. 

2. Adam was the immediate progenitor of the nations which figure in biblical history, and hence must not be expected 

to answer the requirements of the primitive ancestor of all mankind. 

Which is the Adam intended in our sacred annals 2 If we decide that Adam means the first man absolutely, then the 

following conditions must be found fulfilled: 

(1) If we hold to a universal destruction by the biblical deluge, we must show that all existing peoples have descended 

from Noah. 

(2) If we deny the universality of the deluge, we must show (a) that it reached as far as the human species had been 

dispersed, in which case all men must be traceable to Noah; or (5) that all existing peoples are traceable to Adam, 

whether through Noah or not. 

(3) We must show, assuming the Adamic origin of all men, that time sufficient has elapsed since the ad vent of Adam 

to effect the wide dispersion of peoples, and the existing divergence of species and races. 

(4) We must show, on the same assumption, that the racial divergences which exist are in accordance with the 

observed tenor of biological facts. 

(5) We must show that all this is what lies within the purview of the Bible in treating of Adam and his posterity. 

"91 After long and impartial study of the data for this discussion, I feel convinced that such demonstrations cannot be 

made; and I shall proceed to indicate the evidences which seem to sustain the opinion that the biblical Adam was not 

absolutely the first man. 

Attention should first be directed to the text in which the biblical genealogies are recorded. It will not be contended 

that our standard English translation possesses supreme authority. Its divergences from the punctuated Hebrew have 

attracted the attention of all students. Unlimited testimony to this effect might be adduced. The fact has pressed upon 

modern scholarship with such weight that one or more new English translations are at this moment in progress. This 

condition of the English translation is not surprising, whether we consider the state of contemporary learning at the 

date of its production, the fact that it was chiefly based on the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew version, or the 

infantile condition of Protestant Hebrew erudition in King James' time, and the astonishing unfamiliarity with the 

Hebrew which characterized the body of translators.

But the standard Masoretic Hebrew text itself is far from infallible, as the various readings evince. "No less than 

30,000 various readings of the Old and New Testaments have been discovered . . . and putting alterations made 

knowingly, for the purpose of -corrupting the text, out of the question, we must admit that from the circumstances 

connected with transcribing, some errata may have found their way into it, and that the Sacred Scriptures have, in this 

case, suffered the same fate as other productions of antiquity. ... In the last 220 years critical learning has so much 

improved, and so many new manuscripts have come to light, as to call for a revision of the present authorized 

version." * 

To the same purport is the verdict of another evangelical authority: "In the Hebrew manuscripts that have been 

examined, some 80,000 various readings actually occur as to the Hebrew consonants. How many as to the vowelpoints 

and accents, no man knows." f 

Further, as to the standard Hebrew text, it is a fact of notoriety that the subdivision into verses was not begun before 

the thirteenth century after Christ; that the Masoretic punctuation, including nearly all the vowels now employed in 

pronouncing the Hebrew, was not introduced till the period between the sixth and ninth centuries after Christ; that the 

separation of the text into words does not exist in the oldest manuscripts, and was effected not earlier than the tenth 

century after Christ; and that even the square letter form of the radicals or consonants was not employed before the 

third century after Christ. 

Nevertheless, it is generally admitted, both by those who hold to the divine inspiration of our Scriptures and those who 

deny it, that the original Scripture did not vary substantially from that which has 

* Sears, History of the Bible, 1844, pp. 651, 665. t Rev. Prof. Moses Stuart, Critical History and Defense of the Old 

Testament Canon, Andover, 1835, p. 19&. 

come into our possession. The next problem is, therefore, to ascertain its meaning. 

In approaching our principal inquiry, it is necessary to ascertain first, whether it appears from biblical, linguistic, 

ethnological, archaeological or other evidence, that all the present populations of the world are descended from Noah. 

The tenth chapter of Genesis claims to inform us respecting the earlier ramifications of the posterity of Noah, and the 

distribution of the Noachites down to the date of the compilation of the account. For our purpose it is immaterial 

whether Moses penned this, or adopted it from some Chaldaean source, or found it constituting a portion of a primitive 

patriarchal bible, or, finally, never had any hand in placing it in the body of Hebrew literature. Is it plausible; is it a 

true account, as far as we can judge \ I confess that my own study of this venerable document has caused a feeling of 

amazement at its close conformity with information which comes to us from many other sources. It starts irresistibly 

the inquiry how such knowledge came into possession of the compiler thousands of years after some of the events, and 

across a dark chasm of social rudeness and ignorance of the art of writing. It excites my astonishment that the 

languages, customs, traditions and homes of the tribes of the oriental world should, to this day, preserve and reflect so 

much of the condition of the world at the date of the preparation of this wonderful, but unpretentious, genealogical 

table. 

Looking at the verbiage of the tenth chapter of Genesis, as it stands in our English version, it seems at first view to 

imply that the proper names employed are names of men.* This impression is strengthened 

* This genealogical list is reproduced in 1 Chron. i, where it is identical, except as follows,— Shem: Arphaxad's son 

Salah is

y the eleventh chapter, which takes the lineage of Shem, and under the same names employs language distinctly 

enunciating their personality, and even ascribing ages to them, severally, at which their eldest sons were born, and at 

which they severally died. The opinion that such is the true purport of these documents seems to be popularly 

entertained. But I think the opinion erroneous, for the following reasons: 

1. The tenth chapter is the older document, and, presumptively, possesses the highest authority. Its accuracy has been 

established by a world of critical investigation. The eleventh chapter must be construed in subordination to the tenth. 

2. Even the English version of the tenth chapter affords numerous indications that the proper names are intended to 

apply generally to cities, countries and peoples — not to individuals. Canaan begat "the Jebusite and the Amorite and 

the Girgasite," etc. Manifestly, these are meant for tribal designations. And Joktan begat "Ophir and Havilah and 

Jobab." Ophir is nowhere mentioned in the Old Testament except as a country. "And they came to Ophir and fetched 

from thence gold." * "Three thousand talents of gold, of the gold of Ophir," f etc. Havilah, in a preceding document,^ 

had been mentioned as "the 

Shelah; Joktan's son Obal is Ebal; Aram's four sons are set down as brothers, and Mash is Meshech. Ham: Phut is Put. 

Japheth: Ashkenaz is (only in our version)Ashchenaz, and Dodanim is (in the Hebrew) Rodanim. These variations are 

entirely trifling, and have resulted, obviously, from errors of transcribers; but it is impossible to say which list 

approaches nearest to the common original. * 1 Kings ix, 28. See also x, 11; xxii, 48. 

11 Chron. xxix, 4. See also 2 Chron. viii, 18; ix, 10; Job xxviii, 16; Ps. xlv, 10; Isa. xiii, 12. J Gen. ii, 11. 

whole land of Havilah," encompassed by one of the rivers of Eden. In a later document it is said: "And they dwelt 

from Havilah unto Shur."* And again: "And Saul smote the Amalekites from Havilah until thou comest to Shur."f 

3. Mizraim is a Hebrew dual, and is universally recognized as signifying the land of Egypt. From Mizraim came 

Ludim and Anamim and Lebahim, etc. These are all plural forms, and naturally denote peoples. The land of Egypt is 

designated by a dual name, perhaps in allusion to upper and lower Egypt — a division perpetuated by Ptolemy. 

4. The usage of the Hebrew is in perfect accord with the impersonal construction of all these proper names. "And ships 

shall come from the coasts of Chittim and shall afflict Asshur, and shall afflict Eber, and he also shall perish forever." 

\ "And Pul, the King of Assyria, came against the land."§ "The ships of Chittim shall come against him." | "For pass 

over the isles of Chittim."** "I,will set a sign among them, and I will send those that escape of them unto the nations, 

to Tarshish, Pul and Lud that draw the bow, to Tubal and Javan, to the isles afar off." ft "Cush and Phut that handle the 

shield, and theLudim that handle and bend the bow." "Cush and Phut and Lud, and all the mingled people, and Kub 

and the men of the land that is in league." §§ The more familiar use of "Israel" and "Judah," 

* Gen. xxv, 18. t 1 Sain, xv, 7. % Numbers xxiv, 24. 

§ 2 Kings xv, 19. See ver. 29; xvi,7; xvii, 3, 23; xviii, 13; xxiii, 29; 1 Chron. v, 6; 2 Chron. xxviii, 16; xxxii, 1, 11, etc. 

etc. 

I Dan. xi, 30. ** Jer. ii, 10. tt Isa. lxvi, 19.

XX Jer. xlvi, 9 (the proper names are taken from the Hebrew). See also Ezek. xxvii, 10. 

§§ Ezek. xxx, 5. The proper names again are taken from the Hebrew. 

"Jacob," "Benjamin," and many other personifications of countries and peoples, will occur to the reader's mind. 

Confirmatory of this view, the reader will notice that in the tenth chapter of Genesis, Uz, Hul, Gether and Mash 

(Meshech) are put down as sons of Aram; while in 1 Chronicles i, 17 they are called the sons of Shem. Now, unless 

we have here a clerical error,— that is, if both statements are correct,—it can only be on the supposition that BeNI 

(sons) means in both cases "posterity" rather than "sons" in the strict sense. Finally, in Job i, 1, and Jeremiah xxv, 20, 

Uz seems to denote a country — "the land of Uz." 

5. This usage has been common among other ancient peoples. As is well known, Hellas is employed as a 

personification of the Hellenes; Pelasgos, of the Pelasgians; Dorus, of the Dorians; Lydus, of the Lydians. So of Ion, 

Achaeus, -Êolus and many other names which, probably, have never been anything more than eponyms. Tacitus, 

speaking of the ancient Germans, says: "Celebrant carminibus," etc.—"They celebrate in ancient hymns what with 

them is a kind of tradition and history, the god Tuisco [corresponding to Mars] born of the earth, and Mannus, his son, 

origin and founders of their nation. To Mannus [hence the German 'mann' and English 'man'] they assign three sons, 

from whose names the tribes nearest the ocean are called Ingcevones; those in the middle [inland], Hermiones, and the 

others IstcBvones." * The primitive nomina were Ingaev, Hermin and Istaev; and archaeologists are able to assign to 

each of these sons or stocks the German tribes of which it was the primitive source. The case is quite parallel with the 

method 

* See Prichard, Researches, III, 348. 

of the tenth chapter of Genesis. In fact, our modern practice of applying the names of men geographically is perfectly 

analogous. 

6. Modern commentators put such constructions on the proper names in the tenth chapter of Genesis. Dr. Adam Clarke 

says: "Moses does not always give the name of the first settler in a country, but rather that of the people from whom 

the country afterward derived its name." He mentions Mizraim and his socalled sons, "which are all plurals and 

evidently not the names of individuals, but of families and tribes. In the posterity of Canaan, we find whole nations 

reckoned in the genealogy, instead of the individuals from whom they sprang; thus the Jebusite, Amorite, Girgasite, 

Hivite, Arkite, Sinite, Arvadite, Zemarite and Hamathite were evidently whole nations or tribes which inhabited the 

Promised Land, and were called Canaanites, from Canaan, the son of Ham, who settled there. Moses, also, in this 

genealogy, seems to have introduced even the names of some places that were remarkable in the sacred history, instead 

of the original settlers: such is Hazarmaveth, and, probably, Ophir and Havilah. But this is not infrequent in the sacred 

writings, as may be seen in 1 Chron. ii, 51, where Salma is called the father of Bethlehem, which certainly never was 

the name of a man, but of a place, sufficiently celebrated in sacred history; and in chap, iv, 14, where Joab is called 

the father of the valley of Charashim,* which no person could ever suppose was intended to designate an individual, 

but the society of craftsmen or artificers who lived there."f 

Kurtz also says: "The names denote, for the most 

* As Washington was "the father of his country." t Adam Clarke, Commentary, ad loc.

part, groups of people whose name is carried back to the ancestor, forming one united conception."* Dr. Eadie says: 

''The world must have been peopled by tribes that gave themselves and their respective regions those several names 

which they have borne for so many ages. . . . Many of the proper names occurring on this roll remain unchanged as the 

appellations of races and kingdoms. Others are found in the plural or dual number, proving that they bear a personal 

and national reference (Genesis x, 13); and a third class have that peculiar termination which, in Hebrew, signifies a 

sept or tribe (x, 17V t Finally Canon George Rawlinson concludes: "The time is gone by when nothing more was seen 

in the list of names to be found in this chapter than a set of personal appellations, the proper names of individuals. ... It 

may be assumed [for reasons stated] that the object of the author of the tenth chapter of Genesis was to give us, not a 

personal genealogy, but a sketch of the interconnection of races. 

This conclusion must now seem entirely obvious; but to grant it will overthrow completely the current biblical 

chronology. Aside from this, however, it becomes intimately accessory to the explanation of the biblical ethogenealogy. 

This will appear as we proceed. 

* Lange, Commentary, Genesis, p. 346. 

t Eadie, Early Oriental History, in Ency. Metrop., London, 1852, p. 2. See also Bochart, Phaleg, seu de Dispersione 

Gentium, etc., 1651; Dubois de Montpereux, Voyage autour du Caucase; Kosenmiiller, Alterthumskunde, Theil II, p. 

94. 

% Rawlinson, Origin of Nations, pp. 168,169.

Chapter 3 

The Hamites and Their Dispersion 

BIBLICAL researches have accomplished a result which at first view would seem unattainable. They have ascertained 

with considerable certainty the regions in which most of the peoples were located whose names are mentioned in the 

tenth chapter of Genesis. I propose first to go through the list for the purpose of impressing the reader with the just 

conviction that we indulge in no guess-work in saying that we know to what regions the posterity of Noah were 

dispersed. As the oldest civilizations of which we have any knowledge were Hamitic, I begin with Ham. 

The Hebrew word KhaMf is defined by Gesenius as signifying "warm, hot, e.g. of bread just baked; Joshua ix, 12." It 

is also given as the name of a son of Noah, whose posterity spread over the warm or hot regions of the known world. 

Gesenius regards it also as probably the domestic name of Egypt. Other authorities vocalize the name of Egypt as 

KheM, which is also the name of the Egyptian god Pan, or 

*The reader will find a "Chart of Dispersions of the Noachites" at the end of the fifth chapter. 

t I do not deem it desirable to introduce Hebrew characters in a work intended for popular reading. I shall, therefore, 

transliterate Hebrew names by employing large Roman capitals for the Hebrew radical letters, and small (lower case) 

letters to express the aspirates and the customary vowel sounds. The circumflex (") over "a" denotes the "long broad 

sound" as in "fall." 

the generative principle of nature.* Plutarch says the name alludes to the blackness of the alluvial soil of Egypt. f So 

the Greek Ia/j.a{ signifies on the ground. To the same root belong humi, humus, humilis in Latin, and humility and 

cognate words in English and other languages. If it be insisted \ that the word necessarily signifies "black," the allusion 

may as naturally be to the color of the soil as to the color of the people — the more so, as the people were never 

blacks, but always contrasted themselves with the blacks. 

The tenth chapter of Genesis gives us the BeNIKhaM, children of Ham, which means the descendants of Ham; as 

"children of Israel" signifies always the descendants of Israel. 

CUSH. 

CUS or CUSh is a name whose signification is in dispute. Applied to a country, it is said to signify Êthiopia; but 

where was Êthiopia? The answer to this question will follow from a discovery of the distribution of the Cushites. 

SeBA or Seba, the first-named affiliation of Cush, is sometimes located in the south of Egypt; but better and fresher 

evidence tends to locate it in the province of Oman, in southern Arabia. § 

* Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. II, p. 20, note. 

t Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, c. 33. See McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia, art. "Egypt," Vol. III, p. 75.

i Compare Whedon, in Methodist Quarterly Revieiv, July, 1878, p. 564. 

§ I do not consider it necessary to cite the voluminous authorities which sustain the conclusions I am about to 

enunciate. I may state once for all, that some of the chief investigators on whose authority these and later conclusions 

rest are the following: — Samuel Bochart, Geographia Sacra, especially Phaleg, sen de Dispersione Gentium et 

Terrarum divisione factain cedificatione turris Babel, fol. 1651; Knobel, 

KhaTJILaH or Havilah designates a colony of Cushites, who settled on the west shore of the Persian Gulf, in Arabia. 

Our genealogical table gives us two Havilahs, and it is not possible to determine whether any particular reminiscence 

belongs to the Cushite or the Joktanide Havilah. 

SaBTtaH or Sabtah is generally understood to have been located in eastern Arabia, on the Persian Gulf, or on the 

contiguous shore of the Indian Ocean. 

RaAMaH or Raamah were probably the old KhairidnitidEe, and their country is believed to be pointed out by the 

modern Ramss, a port of Arabia just inside the Persian Gulf. The two offshoots of Raamah — SB A, Sheba, and 

DDaN, Dedan—were located in the south of Arabia, the latter on the Indian Ocean. Sheba 

Die Viilkertafel der Genesis, Giessen, 1851; George Rawlinson, The History of Herodotus, 4 vols. (translation with 

copious notes) Amer. .ed. 1859, and The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 3 vols. 2d ed., New 

York, 1871; Id., Persian Cuneiform Inscription of Behistun, 1847 (See also Herodotus, Vol. II, note C); Id., The Origin 

of Nations: I. On Early Civilizations; II. On Ethnic Affinities, etc., New York, 1878; Hales, Analysis of Chronology, 2d 

ed., 1830; Cahen, La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, Paris, 1831; Francois Lenormant, Manuel de VHistoire Ancienne de 

V Orient, a Manual of the Ancient History of the East, Amer. ed., 1871; Dubois de Montpereux, Voyage mitour du 

Caucase, chez les Tcherkesses et les Abkhases en Colchide, en Georgie, en Armenie et en Crimee, avec un Atlas 

ge'ographique, pittoresque, archeologique, geologique, etc., Paris, 6 vols., text 8vo, 183943; Gliddon, Otia JEgyptiaca; 

Nott and Gliddon, Types of Mankind, 8vo, pp. 738, with charts and other illustrations, Philadelphia, 1854; Id., 

Indigenous Races of the Earth, 8vo, pp. 656 (with charts and illustrations), Philadelphia, 1857; De Saulcy, Recherches 

sur VVenture cun'eiforme Assyrienne, Paris, 1848; Champollion, Grammaire JEgyptienne, Paris, 1836, and Dictionaire 

Êgyptienne, Paris, 1841; Volney, Recherches Nouvelles, Paris, 1822; Mariette, Abrege de Vhistoire d'Egypte, Paris, 

1867; Bunsen, JEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte, Gottingen, 1845, (translation, with additions, by Dr. Birch,) 

Egypt's Place in Universal History, London, 1867, New York, 1868; Lepsius, Chronologie der JEgypter, Berlin, 1849; 

Kenrick, must be some way connected with the ancient Sabaeans, and Dedan seems to be perpetuated in Dadan, an 

island in the Persian Gulf.* 

SaBTKA or Sabtecha was located by Josephus in Abyssinia; but Forster thinks the Sabatica Regio of the ancients more 

probable. This is in Arabia, near the mouth of the Euphrates. 

NiMRoD or Nimrod settled, beyond all dispute, in the plain of Shinar, which answered to Mesopotamia and the 

bordering country. Our version says he was a "great hunter"; but some of the authorities, on the strength of affiliated 

roots, give us rather, "a great landed proprietor," in obvious allusion to the biblical statements concerning his extended 

dominions. He is said to have built the cities of Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh. Our version says that "out of that 

land went forth Asshur and builded Nineveh"; but the marginal reading is more consistent: '' He [Nimrod] went out of 

that land [Babylon] into Asshur [Assyria]." Hence the Assyrian cities of Nineveh, 

Phoenicia and Êgypt under the Pharaohs; Gesenius, Geschichte der Hebrdischen Sprache, 1815; Fresnel, Inscriptions 

Himyariques; Burckhardt, Arabia; Layard, Babylon and Nineveh and its Remains; Brugsch, Histoire d'Egypte, Leipzig,

1859, and Scriptura JEgyptiorum Demotica, Berlin, 1848; Raoul-Roquette, Archeologie compares; Hunt, Himyaric 

Inscriptions, 1848; Forster, Sinaic Inscriptions; Prichard, Researches in the Physical History of Mankind and Natural 

History of Man, 4th ed., by Edwin Norris, 2 vols., London, 1855, (many portraits and woodcuts); Stanley, Palestine; 

Movers, Phonizisches Alterthum. The Bible Atlas and Gazetteer, published by the American Tract Society, New York, 

furnishes a most carefully compiled digest of Genesiacal nationalities and affiliations. See also the Map given in 

McClintock and Strong's Encyclopedia, art. "Ethnology." See further on the same, in this and in Smith's Dictionary of 

the Bible, the articles "Cush," "Egypt" (Mitzraim), "Ham," etc. 

*1 Kings x, 10; Psa. lxxii, 10; Isa. xxi, 13; Ezek. xxvii, 20, 22. 

Rehoboth, Calah and Resen were also founded by Nimrod, i.e. the Nimrodites. Thus the primitive civilization of 

Babylonia and Assyria was Hamitic. The first personal kings of this Hamitic dynasty were Urukk and Ilgi. 

From the foregoing determinations it appears that the land of Cush was all the country from the "river of Egypt" to the 

Euphrates and Tigris, and thence along the western shore of the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Arabia. 

MIZRAIM. 

MiTsRaiM or Mizeaim represents the second people derived from Kham. By universal consent the word signifies 

either Egypt or the Egyptians. The colonial offshoots of Mizraim were the following: 

LUDIM were undoubtedly the progenitors of the Berber tribes of the northwest of Africa. They are sometimes set 

down as "near Ethiopia"—in the south of Nubia—but linguistic affinities point out Mauritania as much more probable. 

The Lydians of Asia Minor are regarded as Semites. 

ANaMIM or Anamim were perhaps the forerunners of the Numidians, inhabiting the oases of the desert, and 

represented by the modern Berber tribe of Enine. 

LHaBIM or Lehabim settled as Libyans on the Mediterranean coast between Egypt and the Syrtis Major. They were 

the Libyans of classical history, and the LUBIM of other parts of the Bible.* 

NaPhTtuKhIM or Naphtuhim settled about lake Mareotis, on the western border of Egypt, represented by the 

Naphtuhaei of Coptic Christian literature. They spoke a Berber dialect, and were probably the easternmost tribe of the 

great Gaetulian sub-family of Hamites. 

* 2 Chron. xii, 3; xvi, 8; Nan. iii, 9; Dan. xx, 43. 

PaThRuSIM or Patheusim are the Pharusii of ancient Barbary settled in Mauritania, a part of modern Morocco. Some, 

as Canon Rawlinson, regard them as people of Pathros, which is equivalent to the Thebaid, or upper Egypt. 

KaSLuKhIM or Casluhim are represented by the Shillouhs of Barbary, one of the main branches of the great Gaetulian 

sub-family of Hamites. Out of the Casluhim came the PhiLiShTIM or Philistim, who are universally recognized as the 

historical Philistines, or Berberic Canaanites on the east of the Mediterranean. Out of the same also issued the 

KaPhTtuRJM or Caphtorim, whose locality has not been satisfactorily ascertained. By some they are supposed to have

colonized Crete ;* by others they are thought to have planted themselves on the shore of the Mediterranean between 

Canaan and Egypt. 

PHUT. 

PhUT or Phut, the third Hamitic colony, is generally admitted to have occupied the Mediterranean coast west of Egypt. 

By some, this Berber colony is located just west of the Syrtis Major, but precise information is wanting. Canon 

Rawlinson thinks the Phut dwelt between Egypt and Ethiopia proper, in the region now called Nubia. 

CANAAN. KNaaN or Canaan designates Phoenicians, so-called in classical history, who in early times were spread 

over the whole of the Holy Land and Phoenicia proper. They became completely semitized before the time of 

Abraham. 

* The isle of KaPhTtOR or Caphtor, Jer. xlvii, 4. From the association of the "Philistines," "Tyre" and "Sidon," this 

suggestion seems not plausible. 

TsIDoX or Sidon represents the Sidonians. Their city, the modern Seyda, was located on the Mediterranean, in about 

latitude 33° 34'. Later, when driven out by the Philistines, "they sought refuge on the rocky islet upon which they 

founded Tyre." 

KheTh or Heth indicates the Hittites, whose country was near Hebron. 

IBUSI or Jebusite implies a man of the city of IBUS or Jebus. Where this city was located is a little uncertain; but it is 

believed to have been a primitive Hamitic city built on the site of Jerusalem. "And David and all Israel went to 

Jerusalem, which is Jebus, where the Jebusites were [formerly] the inhabitants of the land."* 

AMoRI or Amorite is a tribal designation whose geographical position is not precisely fixed. By some it is placed west 

and east of the plains of the Jordan; by others, from lake Asphaltites to Mount Hermon. It was at least a Palestinic 

colony of Canaanit'es. 

GiRGaShI or Giegasite was simply the name of another Canaanitish tribe whose precise position remains unknown. 

KhiUI or Hivite denotes a tribe of Canaanites who, in the time of Joshua, were "inhabitants of Gibeon," and entered 

into a treacherous peace with the general, f The Hivite is represented as dwelling "under Hermon in the land of 

Mizpeh." + 

AaRKI or Aekite signifies a man of Arka or Acra, — a city whose ruins still exist between Tripoli in old Phoenicia 

and Antaradus. 

SINI or Sinite denotes a man of Sin, a town near Acra, on the slopes of Mount Lebanon. 

* 1 Chron. xi, 4. See also Josh, xviii, 16. 

t Josh, xi, 19. | Josh, xi, 3.

ARVaDI or Arvadite, a man of a town now called Roweyda, on the little island of Aradus near the Mediterranean 

coast opposite Cyprus. 

TsMaRI or Zemarite, a man of Simyra, near Antaradus, on the western spur of Mount Lebanon. 

KhaMaThI or Hamathite, a man of a city now known as el-Hamah, and situated on the Orontes north of Phoenicia, 

and in the middle latitude of Cyprus. A very ancient name, known among the cuneatic inscriptions of Assyria, and 

hieroglyphed among the conquests of Rameses III. 

"These are the descendants of KhaM, after their families, after their tongues, in their countries, and in their nations." 

It is shown, therefore, on the basis of Biblical interpretation, that the Hamites primitively spread themselves from 

Mount Lebanon over all the Holy Land as far as Arabia; that they extended from this region eastward to the Tigris, and 

occupied the eastern border of Arabia as far as the Indian Ocean; and that on the west they possessed the valley of the 

Nile as far as the first cataract, and spread along the African shore of the Mediterranean as far as the modern Gibraltar. 

Not only, therefore, was the primitive civilization of Egypt Hamitic, but also that of Barbary, as well as that of 

Phoenicia, Judea, Syria, Chaldaea, Assyria, Babylonia, Susiana, and Himyaritic (or eastern and part of southern) 

Arabia. 

History, tradition, languages and monuments enable us to follow the migrations and displacements of the Hamites into 

post-genesiac times, and even to note their existing distribution over the surface of the earth. Hamites passed from 

Asia Minor into the south of Europe as early as 2500 B.c., and occupied the peninsula of Greece, where they were 

known as Pelas 

gians* or Tursanes, and some of whom were afterward designated Tyrrhenians. The Pelasgians of Crete were known 

as Musoi, from Mysia in Asia Minor; those of Macedonia and Thrace were the Teucroi. They held the islands of 

Andros, Samothrace, Lemnos and Imbrus. They did not bring with them a knowledge of the cereals and the art of 

agriculture. Nor were these aids to civilization derived from Egypt, since no communication with Egypt could probably 

have existed until about 1700 b.c.; while the cereals were in the Peloponnesus as early as 2000 b.c.— derived, 

according to tradition, from the Thracians of the Aryan family. 

The Pelasgian empire, founded in Asia Minor, gradually extended itself over all Greece, which, according to 

Herodotus, was called Pelasgia before it was called Hellas. f Euripides says the inhabitants were styled Pelasgiotes 

before they were Danaoi'. In Europe, as in Asia, the Hamites became the first founders of cities. Athens was Hamitic, 

and so were Dodona, Argos, Aeolis and Doris, as well as Plakia and Skulaka on the Asiatic shore of Marmora, and 

Larissa in Ionia. 

* The Pelasgians are regarded by Rawlinson as Aryans, and the ancestors of the Hellenes (Herodotus, Vol. I, p. 541). 

This view is apparently opposed by the text of Herodotus and the testimonies generally. The ethnic position of the 

Pelasgians, nevertheless, is not regarded as completely settled. Pausanias states that they received the arts of 

agriculture and weaving from the Indo-European Thracians. But the Indo-Europeans had been possessed of these arts 

before they dispersed from their primitive home in central Asia; and if the Pelasgians had been a branch of that stock 

they would have carried agriculture and weaving with them into Greece. See Pausanias 1. viii, c. 4, §1, and 1. 1, c. 14, 

§2, ed. Didot-Dindorf, pp. 19 and 367; Lenormant, Manuel d'histoire aneienne, 3d ed., 1.1, p. 354; d'Arbois de 

Jubainville, Les premiers Habitants de VEurope, chap. iv. Les Turses ou Pelasges-Tursanes.

t Herodotus, Bk. II, ch. 56. 

The Arcadians and primitive Argives were Pelasgic, as well as the primitive Ionians. 

From Hellas, the Pelasgians extended their empire into Italy, where, as Tyrrhenians, they invaded the north; as 

Peucetians, they occupied the southern extremity; and as CEnotrians, the region afterward known as Lucania and 

Bruttium — the modern Calabria and Basilicate. As Messapians and Daunians, they settled also in southern Italy. At a 

later period, when driven from Hellas by Indo-Europeans, they took possession of the whole of Italy, subduing the 

Aryan OmbroLatins, who had already expelled the Aryan Siculi (Ligurians), the conquerors of the Pelasgic CEnotrians 

or primitive immigrants. Here, then, as Etruscans,* these Hamitic Pelasgians established a new empire, which grew 

strong enough to make two warlike attempts upon Egypt, which, however, proved unsuccessful. The center of the 

Etruscan empire was between the Tiber, the Mediterranean and the Apennines. Its date is fixed by d'Arbois de 

Jubainville at 992 to 974 B.c.— the Siculi having fled in 1034 B.c. to Sicania, now Sicily. 

The early history of Rome was chiefly under Etrusoan influence. This power, during the fifth century b.c., extended 

itself to the regions north of the Po. Mantua was one of their cities. They left Etruscan inscriptions in the southern 

valleys of the Alps, which have been discovered in modern times. There they 

* Authorities disagree as to the affinities of the Etruscans. Dennis, who has given the subject patient investigation, 

agrees with Herodotus, that they were a colony from the Lydians of Asia Minor, arriving by sea (Cities and Cemeteries 

of Etruria, new ed., 1879). Rawlinson holds that they belong to a different race from the other Italic nations. Delitzsch 

says they were Semites. This subject has been historically discussed by d'Arbois de Jubainville, Les Premiers 

Habitants de VEurope. 

came in conflict with the Aryan Celts, by whom they were subjugated at the end of the fourth century B.c. About the 

same time the Roman power wrested central Italy from the Etruscans. Southern Italy had already been seized by the 

Ombro-Latin Samnites. Thus disappeared the great Hamitic empire in Italy, and Aryan dominion was planted in its 

place, as sixteen hundred years earlier it had displaced Hamitic power in the peninsula of Greece. 

From the time of the arrival of Hamites in Greece, eight hundred years elapsed before direct intercourse sprang up 

between Greece and Egypt. On occasion of the expulsion of the long-dominant but foreign "Shepherds" from Egypt — 

about 1700 B.c.— Danaos is represented as planting a colony at Argos. He was not an Egyptian, but it is not known 

whether the Shepherds were Hamites or Aryans. Agriculture had been known in Egypt as early as the Twelfth 

Dynasty, which, according to the German Egyptologists, was between 2850 and 2400 B.c., or, according to English 

chronologers, about 2080 B.c. 

Save the displacement of the primitive Hamites in western Asia and southeastern Europe, their distribution remains at 

the present day nearly as it existed when the ethno-genealogical table of Genesis was compiled. Hamitic peoples still 

occupy the whole of the north of Africa as far as the Soudan, and all the eastern coast region of that continent as far as 

the equator. The ancient Egyptian type is still very well preserved in the Fellahin, or peasantry of the lower Nile; and 

still better in the Coptic Christians of the towns. The Berber type is distributed, somewhat mixed with Semites and 

Europeans, throughout the Barbary States, and includes the modern ethnic designations of Kabyles and Shillouhs. The 

extinct people of the Canary Islands were Berbers. The Berber type was differentiated from the Egyptian at an early 

period; since the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt designate them as Temhu, in distinction from the Retu or 

Egyptians; and, on the Egyptian monuments, the Temhu are recognizable by tattoo marks in the shape of a cross— a 

mode of ornamentation which still prevails among the Kabyl women of Algeria. The east African Hamites are

epresented by the Nubians of the Nile district, who were formerly Christians, and by various half-civilized tribes lying 

between the Nubian Nile, the Blue Nile and the Sea; and above the mouth of the Blue Nile, on both sides of the White 

Nile, and thence along the more southern shores of the Red Sea to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Beyond this latitude 

are the well-known Galla, resembling Negroes in the color of their skin, but free from the Negro odor, and having long 

curly hair and agreeable features, and praised for the morality and nobility of their character. They appear evidently to 

be a mixed race, containing Negro and either Hamitic or Arabic blood. The Hamitic type, it appears, blends on all sides 

with that of the neighboring peoples, so that it is difficult to decide where the Hamite ends and the Negro begins. 

History informs us that an ancient Egyptian type underwent a similar blending with the African, and explains that this 

was occasioned by intermarriages with Negroes, at that time known as Ethiopians, — the old biblical sense of Cush 

having become greatly enlarged. In modern Africa, where the physical characters of tribes become insufficient for the 

identification of race, the structure of the language and the grade of civilization at once indicate the dominant and 

primitive element. Throughout most of eastern Africa the superiority of the Hamite character is at once discernible. 

Linguistic peculiarities and profound race distinctions mark the products of Hamitic civilization as far surpassing any 

of the indigenous productions of the black races. 

There remains yet one ramification of the Hamites to which I have not directed attention. I have stated that they were 

traceable through the Berber type as far as the Straits of Gibraltar. They are actually traced to the Canary Islands, 

where the Guanches once lived. There is good reason to believe, as I shall show hereafter (chapter xxiii), that an 

extensive island once covered this portion of the Atlantic, and that after remaining the seat of a powerful Mongoloid 

empire for an unknown period it was seized by the Hamitic Berbers, who had already displaced the Mongoloids from 

north,ern Africa. Here a small number remained after geologic agencies had well nigh obliterated the country in which 

they dwelt. This remnant has been known in historic times as Guanches; but they are now totally «xtinct. 

The existence of Hamitic settlements and intermixtures on the west of the Red Sea extended correspondingly, in 

classical and modern times, the application of the name Êthiopia.* We have seen that the Genesiacal table extends the 

land of Cush, the sunburnt race, over western Asia, and along the eastern and southern shores of Arabia. It has been a 

matter of doubt whether, at so early a period, the Cushites crossed into Africa. It appears that, at a later period, they 

were found existing in Africa; and as the Greeks 

* Mr. W. Gift'ord Palgrave has made the suggestion that the Red Sea has resulted from an irruption of the waters of the 

Indian Ocean during human times. He states that the geology and topography of Arabia belong to Africa rather than 

Asia. (Palgrave, in Murray's Geograph. Distrib. Mam., P. II, p. 12.) 

called this snn-burnt race Aithiopes (a literal Greek translation of Cushim), geographers have been perplexed by the 

evidences of both an Asiatic and an African Êthiopia. Distinct relics of Hamitic occupation still remain in southern 

Arabia, in the names of towns, and in numerous inscriptions written in a language known as Himyaric. Many similar 

monumental records of the Hamitic age remain in Assyria, and along the southern coast of Asia Minor. Throughout all 

the Asiatic, Hellenic and Italic regions the primitive Hamitic stock appears to have been absorbed by overlying 

populations, whose modern dark skins, very probably, perpetuate the remembrance of the admixture.

Chapter 4 

The Semites and Their Dispersion 

PURSUING the same course as with the Hamites, I shall first follow the primitive distribution of the Semites, as given 

in our ethno-genealogical table. SheM or Shem, according to Gesenius, signifies a name. In its radical letters, which 

are the essential and original constituents of the written word, it is simply SM, and possibly sustains a relation to the 

Greek word sema, a sign, and the Latin signum. "The word is often employed to signify the name of Jehovah, and not 

unlikely it was applied to the son of Noah to signalize his selection to be the ancestor of the chosen people." 

ELAM. 

AILaM or Elam is generally regarded as denoting the Elamites, or inhabitants of Elymais (sometimes Susiana or 

Kissia), on the eastern side of the Persian Gulf. In classical history the Elamites are generally associated with the 

(Japhetic) Persians, and Josephus says they were the founders of the Persians. But there is good reason to rely upon the 

authority of a table of ethnic affiliations which, so far, is wonderfully vindicated by all our discoveries. We must, 

therefore, conclude that Elam was settled primitively by Semites, whom a Japhetic tribe displaced at a later period, as 

the Semites themselves displaced and absorbed so many Hamitic nations. 

ASSHUR. 

ASshTIR, or Asshur is an eponym for Assyria or Assyrians. Nimrod, the Hamite, we are told, went out of Babel to 

Asshur, and built Nineveh and other cities. A Hamite went into a Semitic country and built cities, which we have 

regarded as Hamitic. Did the Hamite simply place himself at the head of Semitic colonies, or did he lead off Hamitic 

colonies, which he planted among Semitic peoples i * The force of the original text seems to imply the latter 

alternative, and it also seems plausible. Later, however, the Hamitic element in these Assyrian cities was absorbed by 

preponderating Semites, and they became in a strict sense the abode of Asshur, who was venerated in later times as the 

guardian deity of the Assyrians. 

ARPHAXAD. 

ARPhaKShaD or Aephaxad, as the Septuagint transliterates the name, stands for the north Assyrians. It signifies, 

etymologically, the boundary of the Chaldceans. A thousand years later Ur was within the bounds of Arphaxad. 

ShaLaKh or Salah, as transcribed in our version, probably denotes the Salachians, inhabitants of the Salachia of 

Ptolemy, in ancient Susiana, at the head of the Persian Gulf. 

AeBeK, Ebee or Hebee, the son or colony from Salah, denotes, etymologically, those on the other side, or those from 

the other side. It may allude to the arrival of the Abrahamidae from the east of the Eu- * The difficulty here arising has 

led some to regard the parenthesis describing Nimrod as the founder of Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh, as a later 

interpolation. (A. Knobel, Die VOlketiafel der Genesis, Giessen, 1850, p. 339.) 

phrates, or, on the theory of the Chaldaean origin of this ethnic table, it may signify those gone to the west side of the 

Euphrates. In either case it seems a designation applied after the event, when the Eber had settled in Canaan and

acquired the name of Hebrews, since by common consent the primitive Eber were located on the east of the Euphrates 

in Chaldaea. 

IaKTaN or Joktan, one of the sons of Heber, or one of the affiliations colonized from the Heberites, designates the 

Joktanides, or primitive stock of northern and western Arabs. 

ALMODaD or Almodad, the first issue from Joktan, represents, by general consent, the Almodceei of Ptolemy, a 

people of central Arabia Felix. 

ShaLePh or Sheleph, second issue from Joktan, are the Salapeni of Ptolemy, now probably identified with Meteyr, in 

the neighborhood of Mecca. 

KhaTsaRMaUTt or Hazarmaveth, third issue from Joktan, are the Chathramitae of Ptolemy, now at Hadramaut, a 

modern province in the south of Arabia Felix, between Yemen and the Mahra country. The people were known to the 

ancients as Atramitae. 

IaRaKh or Jerah, fourth issue from Joktan, is easily identifiable with a modern tribe designated Yareb, son of Joktan, 

on the Arabian Gulf border of Arabia Felix. Forster attributes to them a wide territory, stretching from the Persian Gulf 

to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. 

HaDORaM or Hadoeam, fifth issue from Joktan, are located by some at the mouth of the Persian Gulf in Arabia; but 

by others, on the southern shore of Arabia Felix, west of Jerah. 

UTsaL or Uzal, sixth issue from Joktan, corresponds to modern Sanaa, the capital of the province of Yemen, once a 

flourishing town and the rival of Damascus. 

DiKLaH or Diklah, seventh issue from Joktan, is represented by the Dulkhelitai of Himyar, and the tribe known as 

Dhu-'l-kalaah in Yemen. 

AOBaL or Obal, eighth issue from Joktan, denotes a tribe colonized in western Arabia, north of Mecca. In the opinion 

of some, this tribe spread from the Arabian to the African shore of the Straits of Bab-elMandeb. 

ABIMaeL or Abimael, ninth issue from Joktan, answers to the Mali of Theophrastus, the Malichoe of Ptolemy, and the 

name is perpetuated in the town of Malai near Medina. 

ShBA, Sh'BA or Sheba, tenth issue from Joktan, may refer to the reminiscences of Sheba still preserved in local 

names in the southwest of Arabia. This name is but slightly distinguished from the Hamitic SBA or S'BA. Rawlinson, 

assuming it identical, thinks it signifies the mixed character of the race. It certainly is not improbable that Semites 

became here superimposed on Hamites at a date earlier than the formation of this ethnological table. 

OPhiR or Ophie, eleventh issue from Joktan, is placed by some in the southwest corner of Arabia; by others, at Ofor, a 

town and district of Oman. 

KhaliILaH or Havilah, twelfth issue from Joktan, is perhaps not distinguishable from the Hamitic Havilah; but good

authorities decide to locate the Semites at Chaulan or Khawlan, in Arabia Felix, on the Bed Sea. 

IOBaB or Jobab, last issue from Joktan, is believed to be represented by the Iobaritm of Ptolemy, and the modern 

Beni-Jobub in ancient Katabania, midway between Sanaa and Zebid in Arabia. 

PheLeG, PhaLaG or Peleg, the other son or colony from Heber, is believed by Lenormant to have located in upper 

Mesopotamia. The posterity of Peleg to the fifth "generation" or colonial differentiation, is given in the eleventh 

chapter. The absence of such enumeration here has been taken as evidence that the table was compiled in the early 

lifetime of Peleg — perhaps by Peleg himself. But the compilation was late enough to permit the enumeration of 

thirteen colonies proceeding from Joktan, Peleg's brother. Does the termination of the Jewish and Ishmaelitish lineage 

with Peleg indicate that the author of the compilation dwelt where he became better informed respecting the tribes of 

Arabia than respecting those colonized in upper Mesopotamia? If we reply affirmatively, we are pointed again to 

Chaldaea as the place of origin of our ethnographical table. 

LUD. 

LUD, name of the fourth son of Shem, is by some regarded as the eponym of the Lydians, located in the western part 

of Asia Minor, on the iEgean. At a remoter period, however, according to Rawlinson, this region had been occupied by 

a dynasty of Pelasgians, and he is accordingly of the opinion that the Lud were primitively located north of Palestine, 

in the close neighborhood of the Assyrians. 

ARAM. 

ARfiM or Aram, called the fifth son of Shem, is generally understood to designate tribes stretching from northern 

Arabia through Syria and central Mesopotamia to Armenia — a name which still perpetuates this patronymic — and 

thence to the borders of Lydia. Aramai'a was a name of Phrygia, in central Asia Minor, in the time of Homer; and 

Josephus tells us the Syrians called themselves Aramaeans. These people extended as far southwest as Damascus; for 

we are told "the ARaM of Damascus came to succor Hadadezer," and "David slew of ARaM two and twenty 

thousand."* The Nestorians belong to this affiliation. 

aUTs or Uz, the first issue from Aram, is supposed to have located on the Arabian frontier of Chaldaea; Rawlinson 

says nearly in the middle of north Arabia, not very far from the famous district of Nejd. This was the land of Job. 

KhUL or Hul was perhaps near lake Huleh, north of Palestine; but the determination is uncertain. 

GeTteR or Gether, the third issue from the Aramaean stock, has not been certainly located. By some it is placed in the 

east of Armenia; others think it one of the cities of Dekapolis, east of the Jordan. Lange says "Arabians." 

MaSh or Mash is put down in 1 Chronicles i, 17 as MeSheK (Meshech in our version), a word of different radicals, 

and also given (Genesis x, 2) as the name of a son of Japhet. This confusion creates uncertainty; but Mash was 

probably located near the other Aramaeans; and as the name seems to be perpetuated in Mt. Masius, and in the river 

Masca, it appears reasonable to place this Aramaean tribe in the north of Mesopotamia or Assyria. 

From the foregoing examination it appears that the primitive Semites were centrally located throughout Syria and 

central and northern Mesopotamia, and stretched southward along the entire west coast of Arabia. There were Hamites

on all sides of them except the northeast — on the extreme south and east of Arabia, and along the lower plain of the 

Euphrates; on 

*2 Sam. viii, 5. See also verse 6, where ARaM stands for a locality and ARaM for the people. ARaM (Aramaeans) is 

rendered Syrians in our version. 

the west, in Egypt, and perhaps along the western shore of the Red Sea, and also along the eastern coast of the 

Mediterranean, through Canaan and Phoenicia; and on the northwest, throughout all the southern plain of Asia Minor, 

and perhaps, also, the Tauric highlands. At a very early period, generally put down as about the eighteenth century b.c., 

the Semites had absorbed the Hamitic populations of Assyria, Mesopotamia, Syria and Phoenicia. In the time of 

Herodotus the following nations had become semitized: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Syrians or Aramaeans, 

Phoenicians with their colonies, Canaanites, Jews, Cyprians, Cilicians, Solymi and northern Arabians. The Solymi 

were in Asia Minor; and if these became semitized very likely the neighboring nations underwent the same change. 

The semitization of these nations is not to be viewed as a displacement of the primitive population. Much evidence 

exists of close ethnic affinity between the Hamites and Semites at this early period. This is shown in the blending of 

Hamitic and Semitic roots in some of the most ancient inscriptions; in the facility of intercourse between the Semites 

of Asia and the Hamites of Egypt; in the peaceful and unobserved absorption of all the Asiatic Hamites, and the 

Semitic adoption of the Hamitic gods and religious system. It is manifest that, at an epoch not long previous, the two 

families had dwelt together and spoken one language. Of this language, called Accadian or Sumeric, some relics 

remain. It supplied the oldest form of the cuneiform character; and from it the Assyrio-Babylonian cuneiform was 

derived. 

The northern branch of Semites have continued, in later times, to occupy nearly the same regions as they acquired 

eighteen centuries before Christ. The south' em Semites spread over the peninsula of Arabia, encroaching upon the 

borders primitively settled by Hamites, and overflowing across the Red Sea into the eastern border of northern Africa. 

The Joktanide Arabs were subsequently encroached upon in northern Arabia by the Ishmaelites. At the present time, 

some of the Hamitic tribes of Nubia have become largely semitized, and claim for themselves a Semitic origin. 

The Semites have always been confined within narrow geographical limits. In the time of Herodotus, "a parallelogram 

sixteen hundred miles long, from the parallel of Aleppo to the south of Arabia, and, on an average, eight hundred miles 

broad," inclosed nearly the whole of this family. "Within this tract — less than a thirteenth part of the Asiatic continent 

— the entire Semitic family was then, and, with one exception, has ever since been confined."* The exception is the 

Arab conquest in the seventh century. 

* Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. I, p. 538.

Chapter 5 

The Japhetites and Their Dispersion 

Japhett or Japheth, the name of the second son of Noah, is said by Genesis to signify etymologically "widelyspreading, 

from the root PhaTtaH." .It seems likely the name was bestowed after the wide dispersion of his posterity; 

unless the language of Noah promising that "God shall enlarge Japheth"* can be understood as prophetic of the wide 

dispersion and power of his descendants. The Greeks retained a mythical recollection of their remote progenitor, under 

the name of lapetus. He was one of the Titans, and the fabled son of heaven and earth. The Greek recognition of their 

Iapetic derivation indicates at once the direction in which we are to search for the posterity of IaPheTt. By these Iapetic 

Javanites "were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their hands." 

GOMER. 

GoMeR or Gomer is a namef whose root-forms are preserved very extensively in the designations of European tribes. 

They are handed down by Homer, Diodorus, Herodotus, Josephus and Ptolemy. Gimiri are mentioned in cuneiform 

records of the time of Darius Hystaspes.i): The tribes of Gomer are the Go 

* Gen. ix, 27. This view is dilated upon by McCausland, in The Builders of Babel, ch. iv. 

t Neither this nor the other Japhetic names possesses a proper Semitic root. These names are Indo-Germanic 

Hebraized. 

J Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. III, p. 150; note, p. 152. 

merians, Kimmerians or Crimeans, dwelling about the northern shores of the Black Sea, and, in later times, spreading 

as Kymr, Kymri, Gaels, Gauls or Kelts over a large part of central and western Europe. Their name is recognized from 

Great Britain to Spain in such words as Cambria and Cumberland in Great Britain, Cambrai in France, Cambrilla in 

Spain, and perhaps Coimbra in Portugal. 

AShKNaZ or Ashkenaz denotes, undoubtedly, the Ascanians, an ancient name of the Phrygians, who dwelt south of 

the Black Sea. The root of the word is extremely frequent in ancient history, throughout the Bythinian region. The son 

of yEneas was named Ascanius; and the Trojans themselves, whose city fell in the gray dawn of history, were 

probably the children of Ashkenaz. The Euxine, Pliny tells us, was formerly styled Axenus, and this, in Greek, 

becomes the well known Euxeinos. 

RIPaT or Riphath denotes apparently the Riphaces of Josephus, whose country was Paphlagonia, in the middle of the 

south shore of the Euxine. Some have located this tribe in Armenia, and some, on the north shore of the Euxine, 

without sufficient reason. Knobel adds the Kelts, and Lange adopts the opinion. 

ToGaRMaH or Togarmah is almost universally regarded as denoting Armenia, in which dwell to this time the 

remnants of a primitive people who style themselves "the house of Thorgon." 

MAGOG.

MaGOG or Magog is a name about which much learned discussion has arisen. This people has been sometimes 

located east and northeast of the Euxine, and set down as the ancestors of the Scythians. But as Dubois has 

determined, they are rather Cauc-asians and Circassians (Tcherkesses) in the mountainous region between the Euxine 

and the Caspian. F. Lenormant has a fancy that the Turanians are descended from Magog; while the Chinese are an 

antediluvian race.* 

MaDaI or Madai, by universal consent, designates the Medes, whose seat was east of Assyria and south of the Caspian. 

History and archaeology prove, however, that at an earlier date the people of Medea were not Japhetic. The Medean 

dynasty of Babylon is regarded by Rawlinson as Turanian;+ but Rawlinson, following Oppert and Max Miiller, merges 

Hamitic and Turanian indications together. Trusting to the faith of the Genesiacal record, we must hold that Japhetites 

were the first children of Noah who dwelt in Media. But it is easy to admit the probability that they displaced an older 

people, and that these older people were Turanian in the sense of being Ural-Altaic. But this touches a discussion for 

which I wish now only to lay the foundations. 

JAVAN. 

IaVaN or J A Van—in the Septuagint, Iovan—is undoubtedly equivalent to the Homeric faones, denoting the primitive 

lonians — a name which then signified all the tribes which afterward became Hellenes. The same, in its root-elements, 

is traced in inscriptions as far back as the Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty. On the Itosetta Stone, the Demotic IUNiN is 

the equivalent of the Greek Hellenikois. Javanas is the Hindoo designation of the Greeks in the "Laws of Menu"; and 

among the Arabs, ancient and modern, Yundn is the generic name of all the Greeks. The Javanidae 

* Lenormant, Ancient History of the East, Am. ed., Vol. I, p. 62. t Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. I, pp. 319, 352, 539. 

were therefore understood to spread over all the region of the Hellenic race, including the eastern shore of the Êgean, 

in Asia Minor. 

AeLIShaH or Elishah finds its equivalent in Elisa or Elis, on the coast of the Peloponnesus. Hellas is probably from the 

same root. Hence the geographical position indicated is the shores of the Morea, and the islands contiguous, in the 

Archipelago. 

TaRShlSh or Tarshish is by one school thought to denote Tartessus on the Spanish coast, and by another, Tarsus, on 

the Cilician coast, in Asia Minor. The latter locality seems to carry the weight of evidence, since there is almost a 

complete identity between TaRSIS (aspirates omitted) and Tarsos, and the other Ionic tribes are ranged by our ethnic 

table along the same Mediterranean coast. 

KiTtIM or Kittim has been referred by different authorities to Italy, Macedonia and Cyprus. We find Tarshish, Phul 

(Pamphylia), Lud (Lydia), Tubal (Paphlagonia), Javan (Ionia) and Kittim so often grouped together that we are 

constrained to reject Italy, and probably Macedonia, from consideration. Kittim was contiguous to Tarsus and 

Paphlagonia; and the island Cyprus fulfills the condition. Egyptian inscriptions, moreover, sustain this solution. 

DoDaNIM or Dodanim, recorded as RODaNIM* in 1 Chronicles i, 7, is generally understood to refer to the 

Dodoneans of Macedonia. Adopting Rodanim as the correct name of this tribe, it may easily refer to the island 

Rhodes. This view would happily coordinate this colony with the other affiliations of Javan.

* Our English version says Dodanim, with a marginal reference to Gen. x, 2, etc. 

TUBAL. 

TuBaL or Tubal is a name perpetuated in the Tibareni of Herodotus and Strabo, a designation of the people now 

known as Georgians. Josephus says that Tubal represented the Iberians in his day, and Bochart and Dubois remind us 

that Thobel and Tubal are identical with Georgians, the ancient Iberians of the southeast coast of the Euxine, and 

extending thence into northern Armenia south of the Caucasus. 

MESHECH. 

MeShek or Meshech denotes a tribe contiguous to Tubal, as indicated by Ezekiel, and by Herodotus, who says: '' 

Moschi and Tibareni.'' All authority, accordingly, locates the Moschi or Meschi on the Moschian range adjacent to 

Tubal (Iberia) in the extreme north of Armenia, along the slopes of the Caucasus. The Moschi are set down by 

Rawlinson as ancestors of the Muscovites, but the evidence is not apparent. 

TIRAS. 

TiRaS or Tiras, the seventh colonial issue from Japhet, is commonly understood as denoting the Thracians, whose 

geographical position was southwest of the Euxine. The river Tiras of Ptolemy, now known as the Dniester, flows into 

the Euxine from the northwest. The Thracians perhaps stretched northward far enough to join the widely-extended 

Kimmerians. 

The genesiacal table thus gives the Japhetites a location entirely north of the Semites. In Medea they stretch around the 

northeastern border of Semitic territory. From Armenia, their central region, the Japhetic country extends westward 

around both shores of the Black Sea, and southward along the western border of Asia Minor. They crossed the 

Bosphorus and populated all the Hellenic shores and islands of the JEgean. 

From non-biblical sources we obtain further information respecting the early dispersion of the Japhetites or Indo- 

Europeans — called also Aryans. All determinations confirm the biblical account of their primitive residence in the 

same country with the Hamites and Semites. Rawlinson informs us that even Aryan roots are mingled with presemitic 

in some of the oldest inscriptions of Assyria. The precise region where these three families dwelt in a common home 

has not been pointed out. We discover, in the remotest antiquity, movements of Aryan peoples in three different 

directions. One stream is seen setting northward across the Caucasus, through the gorge of Dariel, and thence westward 

along the north shore of the Euxine. Another stream sets westward from the Armenian region, along the south shore of 

the Euxine, across the Bosphorus and the Archipelago, into southeastern Europe. The third stream sets eastward, and 

then southeastward, across the Hindu-Kush, into the valley of the Seven Rivers, the modern Punjab. The center of 

divergence of these three streams is Armenia, or at least some region between Armenia and Turkestan or Bactria. This 

fact lends confirmation to the biblical statements; though it is not fully established that the so-called Ararat of Armenia 

is the biblical Ararat, which, there is reason to suppose, was located farther east. 

The southeastern or Asiatic division of Aryans separated into two sub-families, the Brahmanic and the Iranic. It was 

perhaps before the separation that the Hymns of the Vedas were written. Such is the opinion of Max Miiller, who 

maintains that the Zoroastrian religion marked a schism in the primitive Vedic. Be that as it may, the adherents of the 

Vedic worship traversed the passes of the Hindu-Kush and sojourned in the Punjab. Here the Brahmanic form of their 

religion underwent its development and decline. In the course of time the Brahmanic peoples dispersed themselves

over nearly all portions of the Indian peninsula, displacing the indigenous population either by extermination, by 

absorption, or by driving them to the hills.* The Brahmanic language was Sanscrit. This is now a dead language, like 

that of the sacred books of so many other nations; but it is represented in modern Hindustan by the Bengalee, Nepalee, 

the pure Hindu and the Urdu. The mysterious Gipsies are an erratic tribe of Hindus, who left India after 1000 A.d., and 

are known to have wandered as far as Crete in 1322, were in Corfu in 1346, and in Wallachia in 1370. 

The Iranic sub-family of Asiatic Aryans spoke the Zend, which is the language of the Avesta, the sacred writing of the 

Persians, and of the most ancient cuneiform inscriptions of Persia. From the Zend proceeded the Pehlevi, and from that 

the modern Persian. To this sub-family belong the Beluchs, the Afghans, the Tadshik of Turkestan, and the agricultural 

populations of Ozbeg, Khiva, Bokkara, Kokand and Kashgaria. 

The westward or Mediterranean stream of European Aryans appeared in southeastern Europe about 2000 B.c. They 

brought with them a knowledge of the cereals wheat, rye and barley, together with the plough, and the metals gold, 

silver and bronze. Knowledge of these sources of civilization they imparted to the Pelasgic Hamites who had preceded 

them. The first group of southern Aryans appeared on the Adriatic as Istri 

* See Major-General John Briggs' Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India, in Reports of the British Association, 

1850. 

ans; and, as Venetes, they founded the city of Venice (Venetia). They also held a large part of the Archipelago. As 

Phrygians they had gained possession of the greater part of Asia Minor. The Ligurians (including Siculi) dispossessed 

the European Iberians of most of western Europe at about the same date; and in the time of Hesiod (850 B.c.) they 

held Gaul. In the sixth century B.c. they also held possession of Spain for eighty years. The Ombro-Latins wrested 

most of Italy from the Javanic Ligurians; but were, in turn, subjugated by Pelasgians bearing the name of Etruscans. 

Subsequently the Aryan nations regained possession, and, as Romans, overshadowing and absorbing their Hamitic 

neighbors, erected a kingdom destined to extend its authority over most of the known world. The earliest group of the 

northern stream falling under the cognizance of history may be styled Thracian — from Tiras, an affiliation of Japhet. 

It was composed of the ancestors of the Hellenes, Italians and Kelts. The Hellenic Achaeans were in the Peloponnesus 

in the fourteenth century B.c., according to Egyptian monuments. They came into Greece by following the eastern 

coast of the Adriatic southward. Hence they must probably be considered an offshoot of the Thracian group.* 

Continuing eastward, they occupied the Ionian Islands. Later they appeared in Thessaly, and in the eleventh century 

B.c. they had 

*It docs not satisfactorily appear whether first Aryan settlers entered Greece from the north or from the east. As the 

Genesiacal table speaks of them as settled in Ionia, upon the east shore of the Êgean, and upon the "isles of the 

Gentiles," and as their kindred were scattered eastward through Asia Minor to Armenia, it seems likely that the 

Thracian colonization of Greece from the north or northeast was not the first Ayran colony. Under this view, there 

would have been three colonizations of Greece by Aryans: 1st, from the Ionian coast; 2d, from Thrace; 3d, from the 

northern Adriatic. 

returned to Asia, and established settlements upon the coast of Asia Minor. 

Another branch of the northern stream of European Aryans is known in Europe as Kimmerians or Kymri, about 650- 

600 B.c. They were pressed westward from the Tanais (Don) by the Scythians, famous in all history for a fierce and 

warlike disposition. Moving westward, they spread over regions known in classical history as Gaul. Their generic 

designation in central and western Europe was Gauls or Kelts. A nation retaining the name of Kymri or Kimbri 

occupied the Spanish peninsula. The Belga? and the British Kelts were of the same stock. The Kelts had spread over 

western Europe as early as 450-430 B.c. They occupied the whole region between the Alps and the Baltic Sea and

German Ocean. The Goths and Teutons now pressed upon them from the east, and drove them from the countries 

between the Danube and the Baltic. The Iberians resisted them in the Spanish peninsula, and drove them back into 

Gaul. This country was already packed with Keltic tribes, and the refugees sought a permanent asylum south of the 

Alps, in the plain of the Po. From this region one branch extended its conquests over middle and lower Italy, perhaps 

even reaching Sicily; the other recrossed the Austrian Alps, and occupied the vast plain known as Hungary. About 280 

B.c. they made encroachments on Macedonia and Greece, but were repulsed; whence, crossing the Dardanelles, they 

ravaged Asia Minor for many years, where they have left their name to a district known as Galatia. During the same 

period they made extensive conquests from the Scythians. But now the Sarmatian immigration from the east had 

commenced in the regions north of the Black Sea, and the Kelts fell back along the valley of the Danube, leaving 

traces of their presence in the names Wallachia and Gallicia, but slowly disappearing through absorption into more 

powerful nations. 

Another branch of the northern stream, first recognized in Europe as subjects of the Scythians, as early as 400 B.c. 

dispersed themselves over Russia as LettoSlavs. The Prussians are Lithuanian Letts; the Russians are Slavs, and so are 

the inhabitants of the southeast of Austria, and the northeastern shores of the Adriatic. Another branch of the northern 

stream has trifurcated into Cloths, Scandinavians and Teutons. The Goths have been absorbed. The Scandinavians have 

pushed on to the Swedish peninsula, and even to Iceland and Greenland. The Teutons, differentiated first as 

Bastarnians about 182 B.c., are represented by people speaking various dialects, of which the High German is most 

important on the continent, and the composite Anglo-Saxon the most important in Great Britain and the colonies and 

nations which have sprung from her people. 

Still another branch of the northern stream of Aryans swept across the European border about 1500 B.c. Under the 

name of Scythians they seized the country bordering on the Dnieper, expelling the Kelts, as already stated, who now 

proceeded on their conquest of Europe.* During the entire period of classical history they are known as fierce and 

warlike tribes, occupying a vast country of plains and prairies north 

•Ethnographers are not unanimous in respect to the ethnic position of the Scythians. Boekh, Niebuhr and many others 

set them down as Tatars. But Humboldt, Grimm, Donaldson and others maintain, both on physical and philological 

grounds, their ethnic affinity with the Aryans. Rawlinson, in his essay "On the Ethnic Affinities of the Nations of 

Western Asia" (Herodotus, Vol. I, p. 523, etc.) distinctly ranges the Scythians among Tatar nations. He even of the 

Euxine, but of indefinite extent. In the tenth century B.c. they had reached the Danube. In the fifth and fourth centuries 

B.c. they had extended as far west as the eastern Alps. In the time of Pliny their western border had receded, and their 

southern had correspondingly shrunken back. The Scythic nation was now but vaguely known; and soon afterward the 

Scythians disappear from history, crushed and absorbed, probably, by the pressure of the Thracian Getae on the west, 

and the Scythic Sarmatians on the east; or, perhaps, finally exterminated by the subsequent invasions of the Mongol 

hordes. 

To summarize, chronologically, the movements of the Aryan family in Europe, according to the best information, we 

may recognize: 

1. The Ionian or Javanic branch, known to be in Ionia and the "isles of the Gentiles" at the date of the compilation of 

the Genesiacal table, probably before Moses, and, as some think, in the time of Abraham, say 2100 B.c. They must 

have belonged to the western stream of Aryans. 

2. The Kimmerian branch, known on the same authority to have been on the north of the Black Sea about the same 

date, say 2100 B.c. Northern stream. 

3. The Thracian branch, which was only a movement of the western Kimmerians; in Attica 2000 B.c.; in the Italian

peninsula, said to have passed into the 

maintains that a Tatar element is manifest in the oldest records of the Armenians, Cappadocians, Susianians and 

Chaldaeans of Babylon. In a later essay, "On the Ethnography of the European Scyths" (Herodotus, Vol. III, p. 158), 

he argues as distinctly that this nation was Indo-European. F. Milller is of the opinion that some of the Scyths were 

Ural-Altaic and others Aryan (Novara-Expedition, Ethnographie, p. 145). 

islands of the Archipelago, and Phrygia, in Asia Minor; but I prefer to regard these tribes as belonging to the anterior 

Javanic branch. 

4. The Ligurian branch, which appeared in Italy about 2000 B.c. Probably an extension of the Javanic, along the shores 

and islands of the Mediterranean. 

5. The Scythian branch, known in the region north of the Black Sea as early as 1500 B.c. 

6. The Ombro-Latin branch, which displaced, in Italy, the Ligurian, and was itself displaced by the Pelasgic Etruscans. 

7. The Achaean branch, probably appertaining to the Thracians, entering the Peloponnesus in the fourteenth century 

B.c., coming from the west. 

8. The Keltic branch, appearing in the north of Italy 650 B.c., after repulses from the Iberians and Belgians. Probably a 

nation allied to the Thracians and Scythians. 

9. The Letto-Slavic branch, 400 B.c . Perhaps another group from the prolific Thracian stock. 

The facts here set forth are supplied by the very latest ethnological researches. It is of interest to us to note that Europe 

has been completely overspread by the Aryan family, and that the Hindus were originally members of the same race, 

and of the same family of that race, as ourselves. They are possessed, then, of similar intellectual and moral 

characteristics. If we style them "heathen," we must remember that they are wise and thoughtful heathen, armed with 

science and philosophy far above our contempt. 

As to the movements of the Aryan family since the Christian era, history is able to speak with a certain sound. No 

fragment of the family has escaped observation. It would not be possible to conceal itself in the remotest quarters of 

the world. The color of 

its skin would betray it. The tint and texture of its hair would reveal it. The very speech of the rudest peasant would 

proclaim it. The clang and tone of the Greek and the Sanscrit are in the speech of the most ignorant Swabian and the 

most servile Slav. 

Note.—The annexed " Chart of Dispersions of the Noachites" illustrates the subject discussed in the three preceding 

chapters. The Hamites are denoted by Roman block letters, thus: CUSH, Nimrod. The Semites are denoted by Italic 

block letters, thus: ASSHUff, Almodad. The Japhetites are denoted by common Roman letters, thus: GOMER, 

Ashkenaz. The names of the grandsons of Noah are indicated, in each case, by the larger-sized letters.

Chapter 6 

Principal Types of Mankind 

BEFORE basing any deductions on the foregoing account of the dispersion of the Noachidae, it is desirable to have 

before us a conspectus of the principal types of mankind at large. I shall group the races in three divisions, according 

to prevailing color. Ethnologists rely on color to only a limited extent, and, at most, account it but one among many 

physical and linguistic considerations regarded as throwing light on racial distinctions and affiliations; yet color shows 

a strange and persistent independence of the physical environment. A chromatic classification, moreover, will be most 

convenient for the present purpose, f For a more detailed classification see chapter xix. 

CONSPECTUS OF TYPES. 

I. White Race (Mediterranean) or the Blushing:]: race. 

(1) Blonde Family (Japhetites, Aryans or Indo 

Europeans). 

(2) Brunette Family (Semites). 

(3) Sun-burnt Family (Hamites). 

*More exact data concerning the black races will be given in chapter xi. 

f M. Quatrefages regards the human species as a single stem with three trunks — the White, the Yellow and the Black 

— which are divided into "branches," "boughs," "families" and "groups." Dr. Charles Pickering (The Races of Men and 

their Geographical Distribution, Boston, 1848) groups the eleven recognized races as "White," "Brown," "Blackish- 

Brown" and "Black." 

JSo named by Lanci (il rossicante)—Paralipomeni all' Illustrazioni delta Sagra Scrittura, Paris, 4to, 2 vols., 1845. 

II. Brown Races. 

1. Mongoloid Race (Tatar, Turanian). 

(1) Malay Family. 

(2) Malayo-Chinese Family.

(3) Chinese Family. 

(4) Japanese Family (including Coreans). 

(5) Altaic Family. 

(6) Behring's Family. 

(7) American Family. 

2. Dravidian Race. 

(1) Dekkanese Family. 

(2) Cingalese Family. 

(3) Munda Family (Jungle Tribes or Primitive 

Dravida). 

III. Black Races. 

1. Negro Race (Sooty). 

(1) Bantu Family. 

(2) Soudan Family. 

2. Hottentot Race (Leather Brown). 

(1) Koi-Koin Family. 

(2) Bushman Family. 

3. Papuan Race (Dark-Rusty—F. Mutter). 

(1) Asiatic Family. 

(2) Australian Family.

4. Australian Race (Coffee-Brown). 

The three families of the White or MediterraNean race have, from time immemorial, been distinguished by their color. 

The Japhetites or Indo-Europeans constitute the Monde family. Typically, they possess brown, yellowish or reddish 

hair, blue eyes and a fair skin. The type is found in its greatest purity among the northern nations of Europe. The 

Aryans of the south have acquired darker complexions by intermixture with Semites, and, in ancient times, with 

Hamites. The Semites are characteristically brunette. The ancient Egyptians styled them "yellow"; but this is a better 

designation of some of the Mongoloid families. The birth-right Jews, in all countries, and the Arabs, are the best 

examples of this family. The Hamites have always been known by a darker and ruddier tint. Sometimes, as in the 

Galla of Africa and some of the Nilotic nations, the color is almost black; but it is never associated with the woolly 

hair, scant beard, prominent jaws or highly intumescent lips of the Negroes. The Hamite complexion, moreover, 

generally presents a reddish tinge, which renders highly appropriate the designation "sun-burnt," which has been very 

extensively applied to the family — KhaM, in Hebrew, signifying sun-burnt, and this family being designated among 

the ancient Egyptians as "red." 

The brown races may be reduced to two. The Dravida or Dravidians* are the aboriginal inhabitants of India. "Their 

skin is generally very dark, frequently quite black. In this point they resemble Negroes, although they are without the 

repulsive odor of the latter. Their most noticeable feature is their long black hair, which is neither tufted nor straight, 

but crimped or curly. This clearly distinguishes them from the Mongoloid nations, as does the fact that the hair of their 

beard and bodies grows profusely. . . . The intumescent lips occasionally recall the Negroes; but the jaws are never 

prominent. "f The race of Dravida consists of the Dravida proper and the Munda or Jungle tribes of the Ganges. The 

Dravida proper 

* For portraits of this race see Frontispiece and Figs. 1 and 57. 

t Peschel, The Races of Man, Am. ed., p. 451; H. von Schlagintweit, Indien und Hoch-Asien, Vol. I, p. 546. In this 

chapter I shall draw freely from the convenient summaries of Peschel, Mtiller and Topinard. 

embrace the Brahui of Beloochistan, though the Beluchs themselves are Iranians; and besides these, tribes speaking 

five different civilized languages in the southern part of the peninsula. The Tula or Tulava is

Fig. 1.—A Tamulian Dravidian. The Tribe of Bhuiya of Keonjhar serve as laborers and menials in Bihar and western 

Bengal; but in the southern tributary estates of Bengal they are lords of the soil. (From Dalton's Descriptive 

Ethnography of Bengal.) 

spoken by one hundred and fifty thousand people on the west coast in the neighborhood of Mangalore. The Malayalam 

or Malabar is the language of a tribe stretching from the last southward to Cape Comorin. Most of the central and west 

part of the peninsula south of Madras is occupied by the Tamils, who speak the Tamil language. To them belongs also 

the northern half of Ceylon. The Tamil is spoken by ten millions, and possesses an ancient literature. North of Madras, 

to the nineteenth degree of latitude, dwell fourteen millions of Dravida speaking the Telegu or Gentoo language. They 

extend into the interior, and thence far southward. West of these are five millions speaking the Kannadi or Canarese, 

the language of the Carnatic. The Gonds and Khonds of Khondistan are also Dravidians; and besides these are the 

Paharia in the Vindhya mountains, south of the Ganges. 

The Munda family of Dravidians consists of several tribes dwelling in the low regions south of the Ganges as far as the 

eighteenth degree of latitude. 

The Dravida type has become extensively blended with the Brahmanic, and the distinctions pointed out are based 

chiefly on linguistic peculiarities.* The Dravidian dialects employ a method in the formation of words which has led 

some philologists to range them with the "Turanian" class. Whether a real historical affinity can be proven or not, it is 

a very suggestive circumstance in relation to the discussion in hand that sufficient resemblance is manifest to render 

plausible the hypothesis of a remote contiguity, if not a consanguineous relationship between the Dravidians and the 

race speaking Turanian dialects. In view of the

* Whitney, Language and the Study of Language; Fried. Muller, Novara-Expedition, Ethnographie, p. 139. 

sequel of the present discussion, these affinities, as well as those between Dravida and Mediterraneans, possess for us 

an unusual interest, and awaken a desire to know more of the Dravidian race. 

It will be sufficiently exact for my purpose to merge into the Mongoloid race* all the remaining representatives of the 

brown or dusky races. It will also subserve my purpose to pass them at present with a very hasty mention. The 

Mongoloids or Turanians are the most numerous, and by far the most widely dispersed, of all the races. These are facts 

which seem to possess much significance. They are characterized by long, straight, black hair, which is cylindrical in 

section; "by a nearly complete absence of beard and hair on the body; by a dark-colored skin, varying from a leatherlike 

yellow to deep brown, or sometimes tending to red, and by prominent cheek-bones, generally accompanied by an 

oblique setting of the eyes."f 

Several families of this race must be enumerated, and they have sometimes been described as distinct races. For my 

own part, however, I discover very sound reasons for assigning them to a close physiological relationship. The Malay 

family, which may be regarded as the oldest, had its primitive seat upon the peninsulas on the southeast of Asia, or the 

islands contiguous, or perhaps a continental region which has become reduced by geological denudation to some insu- 

* I have experienced difficulty in fixing upon an unobjectionable designation for a group of ethnic families having this 

wide signification. The terms Tatar, Turanian and Mongolian, besides their ambiguity, have received by common 

usage significations too restricted. Mongoloid, as expressing affinity with Mongolians, without implying identification, 

seems, after reflection, to be the least objectionable term now in use. 

t Peschel, The Races of Man, p. 347. 

lar relics of itself. Westward, they spread by Ceylon, the southern half of which they still hold, to Madagascar and the 

contiguous islands of the so-called Mascarene group. Eastward, the Malays have gradually spread over Polynesia, 

reaching the Sandwich Islands on the north and Easter Island on the extreme east. The Polynesian branch diverges 

farthest from the Mongolian type. This branch has been at many points in contact with the apparently older Papuans, 

and by

Fig. 2.— A Malay Gentleman. Prom a photograph obtained by Prof. J. B. Steere.

Pig. 3.— Leleiohoku, brother of King Kalakaua of Hawaiian Islands. Polynesian type. Photograph sent by Rev. S. E. 

Bishop, Honolulu. See also Figs. 48 and 49. 

intercourse has given origin to a mixed sub-race, latterly known as Micronesians. These fade, in one direction, into 

well marked Malays, and in the other into the Papuan type. 

The Malayo-Chinese family has for its primitive center the southeast of Asia. They dwell in Cambodia, Siam, southern 

Burmah, the delta of the Irawaddy, and stretch northwestward along the southern

Fig. 4.—A Muttuk Man of the Thai type of Malayo-Chinese, from Assam. (From Dalton's Descriptive Ethnology of 

Bengal.) 

slopes of the Himalayas and through most portions of Thibet. Along the Indian border they present a blending with the 

Indian types. 

The Chinese family, too well known to need description here, is the largest and most homogeneous family of mankind. 

Their language is purely monosyllabic, and the simplest of all languages in its structure.

Fig. 5.—A Fuchow Official (Taotsi). From a photograph obtained by Prof. M. W. Harrington. 

The Japanese family presents close physical resemblances to the Chinese; but their languages are polysyllabic, and are 

more nearly related to the Altaic type. The Corean dialects are closely related to the Japanese. This family passed from 

the continent to the Japanese archipelago, and thence to the Loochoo Islands and still farther south, displacing 

aborigines,

Fig. 6.—A Japanese Swordsman. From a photograph obtained by Prof. M. W. Harrington. See also Fig. 51. 

which by some are supposed to be represented by the modern Ai'nos yet remaining on Yezo and the Kuriles. The 

Altaic family of Mongoloids stretches from the sea of Okotsk westward through Siberia, to the country of the 

European Lapps. We have no evidence of any older population throughout this vast region. They possess a yellow or 

yellowish-brown skin, a flattened nose, and a broad and low skull. In other respects they present the common 

characteristics of the Mongoloid race. Tungus, to which belong the

Fig. 7.—An aged Ai'no, from Yezo. From a photograph obtained by Prof. M. W. Harrington. 

Mantchns, extend from the shores of Okotsk to the neighborhood of the Yenesei river. The true Mongols, also called 

Tatars and sometimes Tartars, stretch in their numerous tribes from the eastern part of the desert of Gobi, north to 

Lake Baikal, and westward, as Kalmucks, to European Russia. The Turks, of which the Uighurs, Osmanlis, Yakuts, 

Turcomans and Kirghis are the principal branches, are spread over the wide region from the Altai Mountains through 

Turkestan to the Caspian Sea, and, in isolated tribes, through the Caucasus to Hungary and European Turkey. The 

European Turks* have lost most of their Mongoloid characters by long admixture with the Aryan stock; but their 

languages preserve indistinctly the evidences of their Mongoloid origin. The UralAltaic group, including the Ugrian, 

Bulgarian (not the present Danubian Bulgarians), Permian and Finnish branches, reaches from the eastern borders of 

the Obi through northern Russia to the shores of the Baltic. To this ethnic type belong, perhaps, the Basques of the 

Pyrenees; though Fr. Miiller and others rank them with the Mediterraneans. The Samoyeds arefound from the upper 

waters of the Yenesei and Obi, northward and westward to the sea of Obi and the White Sea. 

The Belirimfs family of Mongoloids includes a number of north Asiatic and American tribes which dwell, or originally 

dwelt, about the shores of Behring's Straits. The most divergent type of these is the Eskimo; and if the Mongoloids are 

to be divided into distinct races, the Eskimo are entitled to an undoubted position. This type of people have migrated 

eastward as far as Greenland, leaving the Namollo to represent them on the Asiatic shore of the straits. The Itelmes, or 

Kamtskatdales, decidedly Mongolian in appearance, occupy the peninsula of Kamtskatka; the Koriaks and Chukchi 

range from the head of the 

* Edson L. Clark, The Races of European Turkey, New York and Chicago, 1878. 

sea of Okotsk nearly to Behring's Straits; the Aleutians occupy the range of islands to which they have given their

name, and the Kolushes or Tlinkites and Vancouver tribes occupy the American mainland, and 

Fig. 8.— A Greenland Eskimo. From a photograph taken by Dr. Bessels, of the Polaris Expedition. 

contiguous islands from Mount St. Elias to Frazer river and Puget Sound. 

The American family of Mongoloids embraces all

Fig. 9.— Red Cloud, Chief of the Ogallala Sioux. From a photograph by W. H. Jackson. 

the aboriginal population of both continents, except the Behring's tribes just mentioned. All researches hitherto made 

have failed to establish the existence of more than one race, whether among the anciently half civilized or the hunting 

tribes; and have only resulted in the conviction that an American race of men, as distinct from Mongoloids, is only a 

prepossession arising from their continental isolation and remoteness from their Asiatic kinsmen, when contem 

/ : ~~ \

Fig. 10.— George Tsaroff, a native Aleut from Unalashka. 

From a photograph. 

plated across the Atlantic by European Ethnologists. The physical affinities of the American Indians, especially in 

view of the connecting types of the Haidahs (a tribe of Tlinkites), the Aleuts, the Itelmes, the Coreans and Japanese, 

are sufficiently close to convince any unprejudiced student that all the populations of America have been derived from 

the Asiatic continent.* Even the obliquely set eyes, so noticeable in Chinese and Japanese, is a feature often distinctly 

present among the American tribes; and in any event is not more infrequent than among the remote tribes of the 

Malayan family, f 

Among black-skinned peoples we recognize no less than four races. Besides their black or very dark skins, they all 

have narrow heads (dolicho-cephalovs— a term which means having long heads; but they are only relatively long 

because so thin) and projecting {prognathous) jaws. They possess long thigh bones, and sometimes, also, long arms. 

The shanks are lean, the pelvis is obliquely set, and the secondary sexual characters are deficient. The Negro race is 

further distinguished by short, crisped hair, each fibre of which is flattened like the fibre of wool. The beard is almost 

wanting, the lips are thick and prominent, the mouth often enormously large, the forehead retreating and the nose 

flattened. The skin is thick and velvety, and 

* There lived recently in Ann Arbor a native Aleut, brought from Unalashka by Professor M. W. Harrington, of the 

University of Michigan, while on duty in connection with the Alaskan Coast Survey, under Professor W. H. Dall. 

There are sometimes, also, several Japanese students in the University and the High School; and it is instructive to 

remark that none but the closest observers can distinguish the Aleut from the Japanese. The Aleut, it may be added, 

came voluntarily to the United States to seek an education, and is making good proficiency. He is now employed in the 

Smithsonian Institution. 

t See Peschel, Races of Man, pp. 402,403, and the references there appended. "In only one physical character some 

American tribes differ from the Asiatic Mongols. A small snub-nose with a low bridge is typical in the latter; whereas, 

in the hunting tribes of the United States, and especially among the chiefs, we meet with high noses." (See the portrait 

of Red Cloud, Fig. 9.) A similar character, or even a "Roman" or Jewish nose, is frequently met with among the

Polynesians. 

emits an exhalation of a pungent, unpleasant and characteristic odor. Most Negroes also have meagre thighs, calfless 

legs, elongated heels and archless feet. The home of the Negro is all Africa from the southern border of the Sahara to 

the country of the Hottentots and Bushmen — except some portions on the extreme east, and a belt along the tenth 

parallel of latitude north, extending from near the west coast nearly to the center of the continent, which regions have 

fallen into the possession of hybrid Hamites interspersed with fewer hybrid Semites. 

The Bantu family of Negroes occupies the known portion of South Africa from the parallel of 20° south to that of 5° 

north. The eastern tribes include the people of Zanzibar, and the Mozambique nations from the coast to lake Nyassa. 

The Betshuans are farther inland, and the Kaffir tribes belong to the east. The west coast Bantus include the Bunda 

nations, the Ovambo, the Ba-nguela and the A-ngola. A second division embraces the Congoes, and a third, in the 

northwest, includes the tribes of the Gaboon and the Cameroon mountains. 

The Soudan family of Negroes stretches from the Atlantic coast to the valley of the upper Nile, occupying all the space 

between the Desert and the Bantus except the belt held by the Fulbe, who will be mentioned presently. Among them 

we find, in the west, tribes speaking the dialects of Joruba and Dahomey, those on the Gold Coast, and the Ashantees, 

Fantees and Mandingoes. Between the Gambia and the Senegal live the Joloffers, "the finest of the Negro races." 

Between the Niger and Bourn ou is spoken the Hausa language, known to Herodotus. The tribes of Bournou and those 

speaking the Teda stretch farther eastward, to the border of the Libyan Desert. The lowest of all Negro tribes are found 

in the region of the White (or western) Nile. Here are the Shillook and Dinka tribes, which, in physical characters, also 

closely resemble the Fundi Negroes of the Blue (or eastern) Nile. The latter founded the kingdom of Sennaar. They 

have very long crimped hair, a skin possessing a strong odor, and a color "varying from brown to blueblack, with the 

exception of the hand and the sole of the foot, which are of a flesh-red color. The finger nails are also of an agatebrown. 

The lips are fleshy, but not intumescent; the nose straight or slightly aquiline, as among many Negroes of 

southern and western Africa." It is extremely probable that the Fundi are of mixed race. 

In the district of the Niger, stretching along the tenth parallel of latitude, are found the Fulbe or Fulah, a peculiar 

people who have sometimes been described as a red race. By surrounding nations they are called Peuls, Foulahs, 

Fellani, Fellatahs and Foulan. They have a reddish, yellowish or brownish color, and oval face, a long and somewhat 

arched nose, teeth vertical, lips somewhat thin, figure slim and tall. The hair is black, glossy, long, and reaching to the 

shoulders. They are shepherds and nomads, and in religion, professors of Islam. They are said by Barth to have come 

from the east at a remote period.* According to other authorities they are known to have reached this region from the 

north. Friedrich Miiller, who places them in ethnic association with the Nuba, refers them collectively to the northeast.f 

In any event, they are not an African type, and cannot be cited as proof of the 

* Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa in 1849-55; London. 

tFr. Mailer, Novara-Expedition, Ethnologic, p. 97 and Atlas. 

diversification of the Negro race. Features, language, religion and traditions point them out as a hybridized colony of 

Hamites from Barbary. The Nuba are probably hybridized Hamites from the east coast. On all the borders of these 

nations is noticed a blending with the Negro type. 

The other black race of Africa is that of the HotTentots and Bushmen. They occupy the southern parts of the continent. 

The common characters of these two families are the tufted matting of the hair of the head, a scantiness of hair upon 

other parts of the body, moderate prognathism, laterally projecting cheek bones, full lips and a narrow opening of the

eyes. 

The Hottentot family, styled by themselves KoiKoin, speak a language of great ethnological interest, since, according 

to Moffat, Lepsius, Pruner Bey, Max Miiller, Whitney and Bleek, it presents some resemblance to the language of 

ancient Egypt. Though other philological authorities dissent from this view, the existence of an opinion of this kind, so 

well indorsed, proves that the Koi'Koin are in possession of a language which has reached a remarkable development. 

Whether these people are descendants, with more or less extraneous mixture, from the ancient Egyptians, or have lived 

in communication with them, or some other civilized people, are questions which naturally arise for discussion. It is 

not impossible that even so rude a people as the Koi-Koin should have created a language as complex and polished as 

that which they employ; though it seems more probable that they present to-day the mere ruins of a former better 

condition, or the reminiscences of ancient contact with a higher race. 

The Bushman family (called also Bojesman, from Boschjes-man of the Dutch) are of smaller stature. Their complexion 

is of a leathery-yellow or brown color, and the skin becomes greatly wrinkled at an early age. The women possess an 

enormous development of fat upon the haunches, which is known as steatopygy, and also a character which Cuvier 

styles 

Fig. 11.—Venus Kallipygos, of the Bushmen. From a preparation from life in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. [See 

further description in chapter xvi.] 

"la particularity la plus remarquable de son organization," the so-called "apron," or enormous development of the 

nymphre, together with some other sexual peculiarities. The two sexes, beyond these particulars, have but feeble 

secondary characters for their distinction. 

The third black race is that of the Australians. (See Fig. 12.) They dwell upon the continent of Australia, the islands 

near the coast, and originally occu

Fig. 12.—An Australian, of King George's Sound. From Prichard 

pied the large island of Tasmania. Their color is always dark, sometimes black, and occasionally, on the southeast 

coast, light copper-red. The mouth is wide and unshapely. The body is thickly covered with hair. The hairs of the head 

are black, elliptical in section, and sometimes stand out around the head in the form 

of a shaggy crown. The form of the skull is high dolicho-cephalic. In intelligence the Australians are extremely low, 

but not so brutal as formerly reputed. They are unacquainted, indeed, with the use of metallic implements, and their 

boats are mere logs, which may be regarded as the initial point in the evolution of naval structures. They have no 

aesthetic sense of the use of clothing, but they know how to make and use the boomerang. They have names for eight 

different winds, and many of them have learned to speak the English language with fluency. "They are peculiarly 

inventive in expressions of courtesy, which they both require and bestow freely in conversation." They possess very 

distinct religious conceptions, but their language is, like that of the Koi-Koin, an unexpected evidence of very 

considerable intellectual power and discrimination. It possesses eight case terminations, and as many numbers as the 

Greek. "The verb is as rich in tenses as the Latin, and has, also, terminations for the dual, and three genders for the 

third person. In addition to active and passive it has reflective, reciprocal, determinative and continuative forms." "We 

also find among them attempts at poetry, and the names of renowned poets."* 

The fourth black race is that of the Papuans. They are distinguished by their "peculiarly flattened, abundant and very 

long hair, which grows in tufts and surrounds the head like a periwig or crown, eight inches high," which they train 

and trim into a great variety of fantastic styles. f The skin ranges from black, or nearly black (in New Caledonia), to 

blueblack (in Fiji) and brown, or chocolate color (in New 

* Peschel, Races of Man, p. 333. 

t See illustrations in Quatrefages, Natural History of Man, Am. ed., p. 129.

Guinea). The jaws are somewhat less prominent than among the Negroes, and the lips less intumescent. These 

contrasts are more considerable on the easterly islands. The nose is broad and long, with a drooping 

Fig. 13.—Tomboua Nakoro, a Papuan of Fiji. From Prichard. 

extremity, and the legs are long and thin. Papuans of pure blood are found on New Guinea and the islands off the 

coast, as well as in the groups of Aru and Ke, and the islands of Waigiou, Mysol, Larat and Timor-Laut. On the more 

westerly islands, in the Molucca group, on the eastern half of Floris, as well as on Chandana and all the islands to the 

east of it, we find the relics of an original Papuan race, now much mixed with Malay.* For the rest, the Papuans 

include, generally, the inhabitants of New Guinea, the Pelew Islands, New Ireland, the Solomon group, the New 

Hebrides, New Caledonia, the Loyalty Islands and the Fiji Archipelago. Speaking generally, the islands of Melanesia 

belong to the Papuan race, and those of Micronesia to a race formed by mixture of Papuans and Malays. In the 

opposite direction the Mincopies on the Andaman Islands belong to the Papuan race. 

The Papuans are regarded by Wallace as intellectually superior to the Malays; though the latter, through contact with 

superior nations, have made more advances in civilization. 

The following is Friedrich Miiller's estimate of the population of the world, divided among the seven races which I 

have described: 

Australians, 80,000 

Papuans, 1,750,000

Negroes, including Kaffirs (11 per cent), - 148,000,000 Hottentots, 50,000 

Mongoloids (44 per cent), - 590,040,000 Dravidians, 34,000,000 

Mediterraneans or Noachites (40 per cent), 547,000,000 Fulbe and Nubas of Africa, - - 9,500,000 Other mixed races, 

.... 10,000,000 

Totalf - ... 1,340,020,000 

*Wallace, Malay Archipelago, Am. ed., pp. 590, 591. tThe most recent estimate of Dr. Petermann makes the total 

population of the world 1,424,000,000. 

The foregoing enumeration distinguishes seven races. It must be confessed, however, that the circumscription of 

human races is a work which must be largely guided by the personal views of investigators. That racial distinctions 

exist is a fact sufficiently obvious, but, like the colors of the rainbow, they blend with each other along all their 

coterminous lines. A very marked instinctive tendency to the isolation of races undoubtedly exists, but endless 

intermixtures have involved the study of details in confusion inextricable, and difficulties perhaps insurmountable. 

Extensive districts have become populated by types presenting all that persistence and homogeneity which characterize 

races, but which exhibit, nevertheless, so intelligible a blending of two recognized races that the final verdict of 

anthropology has excluded them from the list of original types. Thus, the Micronesians, sometimes regarded as a 

distinct race, are probably a mixture of Papuans with Polynesians, who are themselves a variety of the Malay family. 

The Melanesians are Papuans, modified, probably, by intermixture, or perhaps by that influence of situation which 

tends slowly to introduce modifications among all organic types. The Negritos, composed of the Mincopies of the 

Andaman Islands, the Semangs of the interior of the peninsula of Malacca, and the Ai'gtas or Aetas of the Philippines, 

are regarded by Quatrefages as a distinct race, but the latest researches of Virchow and Karl Semper tend to prove that 

they are merely Papuans modified by a Malay element. Similarly, the Galla of Abyssinia and the remoter interior have 

been sometimes classed as Negroes, from the color of the skin, and sometimes regarded as remnants of a distinct black 

race now approaching extinction, but their long and curly hair, copious beard and European features betray their near 

affinity with the Mediterranean race. These, like the Somali of the eastern promontory of Africa, may fairly be 

regarded as near relatives of the Semites of the eastern border of the Red Sea, if not more probably descended from

Fig. 14.— One of the Aeta, from near Manila, Luzon. From a photograph obtained by Prof. J. B. Steere. 

the dark Hamitic tribes who settled in the south of Arabia, and are still represented by the black and straight-haired 

Himyarites. In this connection renewed reference should be made to the Fulbe or Fulah. 

More unquestionable results of intermixtures are seen in the blended shades which characterize the coterminous lines 

of all recognized races. As on the east of Africa the black tribes have blended with Semites and Hamites, so on the 

north, Egyptian and Berber intermixtures have so obliterated racial boundaries that we can only say, the farther we 

proceed southward the more negroid becomes the type, and the nearer we approach the Mediterranean the more 

European the type. This state of affairs is well exemplified in the history and local variations of the Fulbe. Similarly, 

the primitive stock of the Turks, Magyars and Hungarians was Mongoloid, but these nationalities, west of the Euxine, 

have become almost completely Europeanized. It is only in tracing them eastward through the Osmanlis and 

Turcomans that we discover their physical relations with the Kalmucks and typical Mongols. So the Aryan population 

of Hindostan seems to have drunken up a great part of the dark Dravidian indigenes, and to have perpetuated their 

memory in the dark complexion of the modern Hindus. I am led to regard the dark complexion of the modern 

inhabitants of western Asia — not less the Armenians of the north than the Arabs of the south —as the reminiscence 

of Hamitic, Semitic and Aryan blendings, some of which date back to an epoch more remote than Abraham. So, 

finally, the extreme brunette or brown complexion, so often encountered in southern Europe, seems to perpetuate the 

effects of the ancient absorption of the Pelasgian Hamites by the later and lighter-colored Aryans — other streams of 

whom, avoiding Hamitic intermixtures, are perpetuated through northern Europe in the possession of their primitive 

fairness of skin. The dark hybrid populations of Mexico and Brazil are only other examples of wide-spread racial 

mixtures. 

Every one must have observed, nevertheless, that the miscigenesis of races does not always result in a complete 

blending of racial characteristics, as is the case with the Griquas of South Africa — a hybrid of the Dutch colonists and

Hottentots. This is especially noteworthy in the hybridism of South America. It is seen also in North America, where 

freckled, blotched and mottled complexions, uncouth extravagances of features, short life, infecundity and general 

sanitary feebleness, are common characteristics of mulattoes. Racial admixtures are less like the union of alcohol and 

water than like agitation of oil and water together. Coercion produces a more or less intimate intermixture, without a 

real blending of the ultimate elements of race; and a little repose discovers them in process of segregation more or less 

complete. It is like the grafting of the mountain ash upon an alien stock, which ever after reveals the physiological 

misery of the unnatural union by the drooping and contortions of its branches. 

Such repugnances, it must be admitted, may yield to the prolonged attrition of repetition and usage; and hence it is 

impossible to take a thoughtful survey of the phenomena of racial hybridity without feeling led toward the conclusion 

that existing race distinctions tend to disappearance. All races, along their borders, merge into contiguous races. 

Undoubtedly human instincts, to say nothing of physical impediments, will long conserve the purity and distinctness of 

races occupying continental areas — unless, indeed, other races settle among them,— but we are constrained to 

recognize an inevitable tendency to a slow and final extinction of all existing racial differentiations, unless there be 

some other causes at work slowly augmenting racial divergences and instituting new ones. 

I allow myself to pause here briefly, for the purpose of protesting against the policy of North American miscigenesis, 

which has been recommended by high authorities as an eligible expedient for obviating racecollisions. It is proposed to 

consolidate the conflicting elements by a systematic promotion of interfusion of the white and the black races. It is 

proposed, in short, to cover the continent with a race of Griquas. The policy is not more shocking to our higher 

sentiments, nor more opposed to the native instincts of the human being, than it is destructive to the welfare of the 

nation and of humanity. Wendell Phillips, who, if sex did not protect him, would be in danger of acquiring the title of 

"most eloquent platform virago," has sent down to posterity the following record: "Remember this, the youngest of 

you, that on the fourth day of July, 1868, you heard a man say that, in the light of all history, in virtue of every page he 

ever read, he was an amalgamationist to the utmost extent. I have no hope for the future, as this country has no past, 

but in that sublime mingling of the races which is God's own method of civilizing and elevating the world."* 

Bishop Gilbert Haven, whose charming personal qualities render it painful to attribute to him similar sentiments, is 

recorded to have said: "We shall live to 'see Helen's beauty in a brow of Egypt.' We shall say, 'What a rich complexion 

is that brown skin.' . . . We shall be attracted to this hue because it is one of God's creations, and a beautiful one too; 

because it is the favorite hue of the human race; because, chiefly, we have most wickedly loathed and 

*Wendell Phillips, Fourth of July Oration, 1868. Here is exemplified that feminine quality which prompts a woman to 

marry a drunkard for the sake of reforming him. 

scorned it. . . . This law ... is the grand undertone of all marriage. It is the Creator's mode of compelling the race to 

overleap the narrow boundaries of families and tribes, into which blood, so-called, invariably degenerates. . . . 

Amalgamation is God's word declaring the oneness of man, and ordaining its universal recognition."* 

And now Canon Rawlinson has added his name to this cluster of self-appointed conspicuities. "It seems," says he, 

"that amalgamation is the true remedy [for the presence of Negroes in the United States], and ultimate absorption of 

the black race into the white, the end to be desired and aimed at."f The reader of Canon Rawlinson's article cannot but 

remark the inaptness of the examples cited of the harmless, or even beneficial, results of amalgamation. They are not 

examples of race-mixture, but only of different family stocks of the white race. The commergence of the white and the 

black races in America might promote the advance of the black race, by annihilating it; but what of the interests of the 

white race, and the civilization which it alone has created? The policy would set back humanity, so far as America is 

concerned, to the position which it occupied before Adam — before the long struggle of contending forces had 

eliminated a race capable of science and philosophy, and evolved a civilization to which no other race ever aspired. It 

would be to hurl back the ethnic pearls selected with long-continued labor and risk, into the all-concealing ocean of

humanity. 

The sort of "improvement" which the mixed race would exhibit is shown by the following table of com * Bishop 

Gilbert Haven, National Sermons. 

t Canon George Rawlinson, in Princeton Review, Nov. 1878, pp. 836-7. 

parative weights of brains, compiled from observations collected by Mr. Sandiford B. Hunt,* made during the civil war 

in the United States: 

Wt. of Brain, 

State of Hybridization. Grammes. 

24 Whites 1424 

25 three parts white - 1390 47 half white, or mulattoes ... 1334 51 one quarter white ... - 1319 

95 one eighth white 1308 

22 one sixteenth white - 1280 

141 pure Negroes 1331 

From these figures it appears, as Topinard observes, that the white blood, where it predominates in a mixed breed, 

exercises a preponderating influence in favor ot cerebral development; while the inverse predominance of Negro blood 

leaves the brain in a condition of inferiority approaching even that of the pure Negro. Fifteen sixteenths Negro blood 

produces a brain decidedly inferior to that of the pure Negro. "This would lead us to believe that the mixed breeds 

assimilate the bad more readily than the good."f A similar law obtains, according to Gould's measurements, in 

reference to relative capacity of the lungs, and the circumference of the chest. 

The practical operation of the law had been long before noted by a scientific observer, among the mixed races of South 

America. Von Tschudi, speaking of them, says: "As a general rule, it may be fairly said that they unite in themselves 

all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors; as men, they 

* Sandiford B. Hunt, "The Negro as a Soldier," in Anthropological Review, Vol. VII, 1869. 

tTopinard, Anthropology, Am. ed., pp. 312, 403, 404. 

are generally inferior to the pure races; and as members of society, they are the worst class of citizens."* The 

following picture is not well suited to promote the miscigenetic ends of Canon Rawlinson. Dr. Samuel Kneeland, of 

Boston, is giving an account of the physiological condition of a miscellaneous crowd of colored people. "A recent

opportunity of witnessing the landing of a large colored picnic party afforded the most striking proof of the inferiority 

and tendency to disease in the mulatto race, even with the assistance of the pure blood of the black and the white races. 

Here were both sexes — all ages from the infant in arms to the aged — and all hues, from the darkest black to a color 

approaching white. There was no old mulatto, though there were several old Negroes, and many finelooking mulattoes 

of both sexes, evidently the first offspring from the pure races. Then came the youths and children, removed one 

generation farther from the original stocks; and here could be read the sad truth at a glance. While the little blacks 

were agile and healthy looking, the little mulattoes, youths and young ladies, were sickly, feeble, thin, with frightful 

scars and skin diseases, and scrofula stamped on every feature and every visible part of the body. Here was hybridity 

of human races, under the most favorable circumstances of worldly condition and social position; and yet it would 

have been difficult, and I believe impossible, to have selected from the abodes of crime and poverty more diseased 

and debilitated individuals than were presented by this accidental assemblage of the victims of a broken law of nature, 

"f 

*Von Tschudi, Travels in Peru. See, as parallel with this, the testimony of Dr. Barthold Seemann, cited in chapter xi. 

tDr. Samuel Kneeland, in Proceedings American Association, 1855, p. 250. 

Similar observations have been made by many a candid and careful observer. Mr. Edward Norris says: "All recorded 

evidence declares mulattoes or halfcastes to be more liable to disease and of shorter life than either parent, and shows 

that their intermarriages are decidedly less prolific than those of other persons."* Col. Charles Hamilton Smith 

declares: "We doubt exceedingly if a mulatto family does or could exist, in any part of the tropics, continued to a 

fourth generation from one stock."+ Dr. Knox says: "With the cessation of the supply of European blood, the mulatto 

of all shades must cease. "| 

These statements concern the mutual repugnance of races ;§ a Law which Nature seems to have ordained for the 

conservation of her successes. Its effect is to perpetuate the possession of superior traits once differentiated in the 

struggles of existence. That the force of circumstances often leads to the violation of this law, to the detriment of both 

violators, is another fact, from whose existence we may draw another class of deductions. It results in a slow tendency, 

as I have said, toward the absorption and disappearance of races. 

* Edward Norris, in Prickard's Natural History of Man, 4th ed., Vol. I, p. 19. 

t Smith, Natural History of the Human Species, Am. ed., pp. 171-2. 

X Knox, Races of Men. Dr. Bachman is the only authority, so far as I know, who has maintained the unlimited fertility 

of mulattoes: "An Examination of Professor Agassiz' Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World; Charleston, 

1855." But Bachman, it will be noticed, restricts himself to the affirmation of great prolificacy. He does not affirm 

good health or average longevity for the offspring. 

§ It is strange that Mr. James Parton should be able to say that this is wholly conventional, and compare it with the 

antipathy between Jews and Christians, and Mohammedans and Christians. Parton, North American Review, Nov.-Dec. 

1878. 

The recognition of this tendency leads us to reflect that racial distinctions once existing may have already disappeared, 

or may exist to-day, as ethnologists have often remarked, only as isolated and perishing remnants of themselves. Such, 

probably, are the hairy Ai'nos of Japan. The Hottentots, as Friedrich Miiller suggests, are merely a racial ruin.* The 

conviction arises, also, that a process so visible cannot have endured through a vast number of ages, without having

already reached its finality. Human existence, accordingly, could not reach back to an extremely remote antiquity. 

On the contrary, these racial divergences seem to have arisen by descent from some common stock. The most opposite 

theories agree in this. The tendency to differentiation of races is a force ever antagonizing the tendency to obliteration. 

Old races may die, but new races and better races are born. This is the outcome of the broad scientific view. In such 

case, the unification of races could only result from the successive extinction of the inferior races, and the final 

survival of the highest. But this is an impossible conception, since the repulsive force will never cease to work till all 

the conditions of existence are universally equalized. 

The old question of the zoological value of the intervals separating races has been vacated of all importance. The 

differences existing are patent to all observation. There they are, beyond all question; call them what you will, that will 

not alter their value, their significance or their force. Call them varietal, racial, specific or generic in value; that does 

not affect 

* On the extinction of races, see a suggestive body of facts compiled by Darwin, in The Descent of Man, revised ed., 

pp. 181-192. 

in the least the nature and the reality of the thing which we contemplate, and its implication as a phenomenon in the 

course of Nature's processes. Undoubtedly, racial distinctions are as wide as those which we regard of specific value 

among Quadrumana and other Mammals.* But like them, racial distinctions are fleeting phenomena. They exist only as 

present facts; and, whatever their value, they do not obliterate or diminish the blood-relationships which run through a 

group of affiliated types. Whether we pronounce mankind as composed of several races or several species, we must 

equally admit their intimate consanguinity, and their common psychic constitution. f 

* A view long and earnestly maintained by L. Agassiz. See corresponding views of Dr. J. C. Nott, in Types of 

Mankind, and Theodor Poesche, in Die Arier, pp. 9-11 and farther. 

t The question of the value of the distinctions among the different types of mankind has been discussed by Darwin, in 

The Descent of Man, revised ed., chap, vii, pp. 176-181.

Chapter 7 

Limited Scope of Biblical Ethnograpgy 

IN the light of this general survey of humanity, let us contemplate the restricted scope of the populations of which the 

tenth chapter of Genesis speaks. Let us place before us a map of the world. Here is 

the Mediterranean Sea, along whose southern shores had wandered the tribes descended from Mizraim. Here is the 

Red Sea, along whose borders were dispersed the posterity of Cush and Arphaxad. Here is the Persian Gulf, and here 

are the broad plains of Mesopotamia, which mark the regions of the early dispersion of the posterity of Cush. Here is 

the Euxine, and here the Caucasus, whose borders and slopes and valleys witnessed the primitive advent of the tribes 

of Gomer and Magog. We fix our attention upon the land of Canaan, and observe that its position is nearly central 

between the extreme limits of the Genesiacal dispersion. From this center the vision of the sacred ethnologist went 

forth and discerned the distribution of the nations in his day. It penetrated as far as the conditions of the civilization 

then existing rendered it practicable. It reached, at least, far enough to ascertain to what limits the posterity of Noah 

had wandered. 

But how insignificant a spot did these wanderings cover! The whole geographical extent of the Noachidae does not 

embrace more than one-fifteenth of the territory which we now find populated by man. Was this an attempt to explain 

the origin of all the nations of the world? Does this genealogical map imply that the regions beyond its limits were 

then unoccupied by human beings % Does it mean that the various tribes and nations which are now spread over the 

earth have arisen from the wider dispersion of the sons of Noah? Have the black tribes of Africa and Australia and 

Melanesia, and the brown nations of Asia and America and Polynesia, been produced from the posterity of Noah 

during the interval which separates us from the flood? Yes, says the catechism, which, under cover of religious 

instruction, assumes to indoctrinate our children in ethnological science. Yes, yes, says the commentator, who 

experiences no difficulty in swallowing the exegetical and indigestible crudities which have been the heirlooms of the 

church for two thousand years. Yes, yes, yes, exclaims, too unanimously, the modern teacher of "divine truth," all 

unconscious that the science of ethnology has made visible advances since Jerusalem was the center of the world. To 

all these questions I reply in the negative. These are questions of "secular science," and science enjoys the inalienable 

prerogative of furnishing answers to them. But I shall show not only that science sustains the negative, but that the 

Record itself both implies and demands it.* 

It is fair to inquire, in reaching the answers to these questions rationally, whether we have traced the dispersed 

Noachidae to the utmost limits assigned by the Genesiacal chart.f All our old maps of Africa designate the vast interior 

of the continent as "Ethiopia," and our English bibles make frequent mention of Ethiopia as populated by a dark-

skinned people, who were presumably African Negroes. Where was the biblical Ethiopia? Was it located in the interior 

of Africa and inhabited by Negroes 2 

To this question I have already cited the negative 

*Here, at the outset, is Canon Rawlinson's verdict: "We must only look to find in this [ethnographical table] an 

account of the nations with which the Jews, at the date of its composition, had sonic acquaintance." (Origin of Nations, 

p. 169.) "It does not set up to be, and it certainly is not, complete. It is a genealogical arrangement of the races best 

known to Moses and to those for whom he wrote, not a scientilic scheme embracing all the tribes and nations existing 

in the world at the time." (Ib. p. 252.) 

t Dr. D. D. Whedon says: "Kham means black, and the old Coptic name of Egypt was Khemi. Now it is remarkable that 

according to Moses the posterity of this black patriarch streams southward, down into Africa, beyond the light of 

history, able in a few thousand years to rill a whole continent." This is, indeed, startling information. If all this is 

"according to Moses," further discussion is foreclosed. We were only seeking to know what is according to Moses. 

Has Dr. Whedon some undisclosed source of information? I fear the work still remains for me to show that Kham does 

not necessarily signify black, and that if it signifies black as a designation of Egypt, it is more likely to refer to the 

color of the soil; and that the descendants of Ham have never been pronounced black, and that Moses does not 

intimate that Ham was a "black patriarch," or that his posterity "streamed down into Africa" so prolifically as to cover 

the continent with Negroes and Hottentots "in a few thousand years,"—that is, in two thousand years, as I shall show 

in chapter xiii. 

reply of modern ethnology, which informs us that Ethiopia, so-called, was located in the peninsula now known as 

Arabia; possibly, also, stretching across the Red Sea into eastern Africa, since that has been said by Palgrave, served 

rather to unite than to divide the two regions. I wish now to confirm that response by interrogating the sacred record 

itself. 

1. The word Ethiopia, or Êthiopia, is adopted from the Greek version of the bible. It is derived from aiOa> {aitho), to 

burn, and &4> {ops), the face, and signifies the land of the sun-burnt. This word is not found in the original text, but 

in its stead the Hebrew word KUSh. The latter occurs in the Old Testament thirtynine times. In five instances it has 

been transliterated as "Cush," and in thirty-four instances translated as "Ethiopia," "Ethiopian" or "Ethiopians." I am 

acquainted with no reason for this discrimination, and feel constrained to regard it as purely capricious. The Septuagint 

had employed the term Aithiopia, which, indeed, is a correct translation, and our English translators, relying, as I have 

before said, on the version of the LXX, have adopted their translation of KUSh. 

2. The first biblical mention of KUSh is in Genesis ii, 13: "The name of the second river Gihon; that which 

encompasseth all the land of KUSh." As long as we locate KUSh in the heart of Africa, this passage is unintelligible; 

but when we seek for KUSh in the Arabian peninsula, we apprehend at least a geographical relation to the rivers of 

Eden. 

3. Again, in Numbers xii, 1, the wife of Moses is denominated a KUSIT—a KUSh-ean (" Ethiopian ") woman; was 

she a Negress? No, for Tsipora (Zipporah) the wife of Moses was one of the seven daughters of a priest (or CoHeN) 

of Midian (Exodus ii, 16-21) whose name was Jethro (Exodus iii, 1). 'Who were the Midianites? Every biblical 

cyclopaedia informs us that the Midianites were Arabians, dwelling principally in the desert north of the peninsula of 

Arabia, extending southward along the eastern shore of the gulf of Eyleh, and northward along the eastern frontier of 

Palestine. Ethiopia consequently included these regions.

4. In Ezekiel xxix, 10, we find the following: "I will make the land of Mizraim (Eg}'pt) utterly waste and desolate [a 

waste of wastes] from the tower of Syene even unto the borders of Ethiopia [Cush]." Now, Syene, by all admissions, 

was located on the southern border of ancient Egypt. If Ethiopia was the country next south of Egypt, the passage 

signifies "from Ethiopia to Ethiopia," which is meaningless. But if Ethiopia was an Asiatic country, the biblical phrase 

carries our thoughts across the longitudinal extent of Egypt, and becomes intelligible and expressive. 

5. In Isaiah xi, 11, it is said, "The Lord shall set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people 

which shall be left, from Assyria, and from Egypt, and from Pathros, and from Cush, and from Elam, and from 

Shinar, and from Hamath, and from the islands of the sea." Now, remembering that Pathros was undoubtedly included 

in Egypt (Ezekiel xxix, 14), that Hamath was north of Phoenicia, that the islands of the sea were held by Javanites or 

Ionians, and that Elam and Shinar bordered on the Persian Gulf,— Cush, the remaining country, was probably not 

isolated from these by an interval of fifteen hundred miles, but must probably be represented by Arabia, which was 

embraced within the geographical circumscription named. Moreover, the Lord's people were to be recalled from 

regions in which remnants of them remained. But the Hebrews neither colonized in African Ethiopia, nor were carried 

captive to that region, nor had any acquaintance with that part of Africa. And, finally, the posterity of Cush settled 

chiefly, if not wholly, in Arabia and around the Persian Gulf. Quite in confirmation of this conclusion is 2 Chronicles 

xxi, 16, where, in connection with the Philistines, are mentioned "the Arabians that were near the Ethiopians." So 

Ezekiel xxxviii, 5, connects Cush with northern and mostly Asiatic nations. Cush, also, is rather Arabian than African 

in Isaiah xliii, 3, and xlv, 14. 

6. The eighteenth chapter of Isaiah has been described as a "splendid summons to the Ethiopians as auxiliaries to the 

Egyptians in the struggle against Sennacherib."* Now I fail to extract this meaning from the sacred text. It does not 

appear that Sennacherib was at all concerned, nor that the appeal was to the Ethiopians. "The rivers of Cush," beyond 

which dwelt the people addressed, were not the White and Blue Nile,f but the "torrents of Egypt"—the "streamlets of 

Mizraim,"—the Besor, Corys (now Wadee el Arish) and the Seyl (the winter brook), which divides Palestine from 

Egypt at Rhinocorura. To a dweller in Palestine, the region ''beyond the rivers of Cush "J was Egypt; and the prophet's 

appeal was made to the Egyptians instead of the Ethiopians, as Rosellini§ long since showed. 

* McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia, 'Vol. III, p. 326; Smith, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, p. 588. 

t It is never pretended that Ethiopia extended south of the junction of the White and Blue Nile. In this view the " rivers 

of Cush" would have to be answered by the main stream of the Nile. 

% See the same expression in Zeph. iii, 10, where the reference seems equally to be to the Egyptians. 

§ Rosellini, Monumenti Civili, ii, pp. 394-403. 

Further evidences will come to light in examining the arguments which have been employed to prove that Cush of the 

early Hebrews was located above Egypt, and "was the land of the Negroes."* 

1. "Can the Ethiopian [Kushean] change his skin, or the leopard his spot?" (Jeremiah xiii, 23), is a text supposed to 

prove that the Ethiopians were Negroes. f But the "sunburnt" Hamites must have been sufficiently noticeable for their 

dark complexion to give pertinence to such a query. Indeed, remnants of the primitive Arabian Hamitidae, preserved to 

our times, are described as "very tall men and almost black."J 

2. The account given in 2 Chronicles xiv, 9, 12, and xvi, 8, of the rout of "Zerah the Cushean" with his million men, by 

Asa, and the pursuit to Gerar, whence an immense amount of booty was taken to Jerusalem (v. 15), is generally

egarded as referring to African Cushites. But Forster has shown that Gerar "lay on the border of the Amalekites and 

Ishmaelites, between the kingdom of Judah and the wilderness of Shur and Paran." The scene of the battle was, 

therefore, in Arabia, and Zerah the Cushite was an Arab potentate. 

Similarly Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia (2 Kings xix, 9), has been supposed an African monarch; but why? His 

movement against Hezekiah was observed by the king of Assyria, and announced by that king to Heze- * McClintock 

and Strong, Cyclopcedia, Vol. III, p. 326. 

t "In the Bible, a Cushite appears undoubtedly to be equivalent to a Negro, from this passage." McClintock and Strong, 

Cyclopcedia, Vol. III, p. 327. 

X See Burkhardt's description of the Dowaser tribe of Arabs. The Bedawees on the Persian Gulf are similarly dark. A 

like erroneous interpretation has been applied to Solomon's Song i, 5, 6: "I am black, but comely. . . . Look not upon 

me, because I am black." Here "brown" or " sunburnt" is the term to be employed instead of "black." 

kiah. Does it seem necessary to suppose the Assyrian king would learn of the approach of an African warrior sooner 

than Hezekiah, whose dominions were contiguous to Africa? Again, in Isaiah xx, 3, 5, the association of Egypt and 

Ethiopia would be the same, whether we conceive the latter on the east or south of Egypt. Whether African or Asiatic, 

Ethiopia was probably contiguous to Egypt. The same remarks will apply to Daniel xi, 43, Nahum iii, 9, and other 

passages, where the two countries are associated. There is not a passage at all conclusive that Cush was African in 

patriarchal times. 

3. The mention of Phut, Lub and Lud, in connection with Cush (Psalms lxviii, 31; Isaiah xx, 3, 4; xliii, 3; xlv, 14; 

Jeremiah xlvi, 9; Ezekiel xxx, 5) may be admitted to imply geographical proximity; but it may as well signify 

proximity upon the east as upon the south. Hamitic Egypt and Hamitic Arabia would be naturally associated; and as 

long as all admit that many Cushean Hamites settled in Arabia, while it is at least doubtful whether Cushean or other 

Hamites settled, primitively, south of Egypt, it seems decidedly safer to recognize Cush as wholly Arabian in early 

times. 

4. The weightiest argument with which I am acquainted is based upon a similarity between the Hebrew word KUSh 

and the Egyptian name of a country bordering on Egypt on the south. This is spelt KSh, and is supposed to have been 

vocalized as KaSh, KeSh or KiSh. The Egyptian name has been regarded as identical with the Hebrew; and this 

supposition was favored by the Coptic use of Ethaush and Koush for the scriptural Cush. But the Coptic version seems 

to have been made from the Septuagint, and the Coptic term is a strict translation of "Aithiopia," which, as early as 

Alexandrian times, was supposed to refer to an African country. Now KSh does refer to an African country; but 

"Aithiopia," as an equivalent for KUSh, does not. Moreover, the words KSh and KUSh are radically different. In the 

Hebrew word "U" is a radical element of spech, while the Egyptian word is without this or any other vocalization as a 

radical element. The two words are names of two different countries. KSh or KiSh designated Nubia;* KUSh was the 

name of Arabia. 

But suppose the two words equivalent; the Egyptian paintings show that the KiSh were generally mahog any-colored, 

instead of black; and therefore Hamites instead of Negroid. 

Even if it had to be admitted, finally, that the weight of evidence is in favor of an early'f African Ethiopia, it does not 

follow that the Ethiopians were members of the Negro race. It appears, truly, that Nubia, which occupies the position 

of the hypothetical African Ethiopia, has, from time immemorial, been populated by a dark race with whom the 

Egyptians had much intercourse; but these are never represented as Negroes.£ In the meantime, the Negroes were well

known to the Egyptians, and their features and 

* The name Kish is still preserved at Tutzis in Nubia, the modern Gerf Husseyn. 

.(.There is no doubt that in classical history the name Ethiopia had become transferred to the region immediately south 

of Egypt. 

%\l was one of the triumphs of Chevalier Lepsius to ascertain that "the Ethiopian civilization was in fact Egyptian, 

introduced 2000 years before Christ; that the Ethiopians of Meroe were not a black but a brown Caucasian race." 

American Cyclopcedia, art. "Lepsius." See also McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia, Vol. III, p. 82: "These Ethiopians 

and the Egyptians were not Negroes, but a branch of the great Caucasian family"; a statement to be compared with the 

one before quoted, "A Cushite appears undoubtedly to be equivalent to a Negro," Vol. III, p. 327. 

complexion have been often depicted on the monuments. Correspondingly, when the ancient Hebrews had occasion to 

mention the Negroes, they were not denominated KUShI. 

Fig. 15.— Nubians and Negroes driven before the chariot of Rameses II. From a reduction by Cherubini. 

A careful examination of the reasons which have been assigned for regarding the country of Cush as African, shows 

that they are not very substantial; while, on the contrary, all the biblical texts cited become more intelligible and more 

coherent with each other, and with archaeological and ethnological facts, when we assume that the early Hebrew Cush 

always refers to the dark-skinned Hamitic Arabians, whose tribes and affiliations I have already* traced to the eastern 

and southern shores of the Himyaric peninsula, f 

* Chapter III. It will be noted, however, that in later times Arabia became overspread generally with Semitic 

Joktanidae, and still later with Semitic Ishmaelitidee. 

tThe Targum of Jonathan translates KUSh by "Arabia"; and this view is defended at length by Bochart, in Phaleg, lib. 

iv, cap. ii.

Chapter 8 

A Glance at Hebrew Chronology 

BEFORE the solution of the problem of Preadamites can be reached, it is necessary to know how much time is at our 

disposal. By general admission, the biblical ethnology does not mention, and was not intended to mention, races and 

nations of men which in our day have spread over regions remote from the ancient Hebrew center. On the assumption 

that Adam was a representative of the White race, and that all existing races are descended from him, the solution of 

the problem involves two quantities whose values must be ascertainable. First, it must be shown that a susceptibility of 

variation exists to such an extent and in such a direction as to render probable the passage from the highest to the 

lowest races in a series of generations. Second, it must be shown that time enough elapsed for this divergence between 

the epoch of Adam's advent and the epoch at which racial divergences had been accomplished. Let us first examine 

what time chronology affords us. 

It is hardly disputed that the Hebrew documents supply the most ancient information which can be styled historical. If 

Moses placed on record the material embraced in the tenth chapter of Genesis, its authorship reaches back, at the most 

moderate estimate, to the seventeenth century B.C. The events narrated pertain to periods attaining an antiquity a 

thousand years more remote. The accuracy of the ethnological statements which we have examined inspires a belief 

that, if chronological data can be extracted from these writings, they will afford us substantial ground to stand upon. 

Such data, however, seem to be lacking. The Hebrews, like all the other nations of high antiquity, seem to have been 

destitute of the chronological instinct. 

If we open a modern Jewish book of rituals we shall find the date expressed in "the year of the world." If we open to 

the first chapter of our English bibles, we shall see placed in the margin the words "4004 before Christ." The creation 

of the world is thus assumed as a fixed and ascertained epoch. On this fixed date all other marginal chronology of the 

Pentateuch depends. 

It is greatly to be regretted that unanimity in the acceptance of this epoch of creation is not as complete as the 

reassuring silence of the standard edition of the Bible would fairly imply. The truth is, that 4004 B.C. for the epoch of 

Creation is only one among many results which different investigators have reached, after assuming that the world 

came into existence suddenly, by a fiat. Hales* has tabulated not less than one hundred and twenty estimates founded 

on different manuscripts and versions of the Hebrew text. Other results are furnished by de Bretonne.f From these and 

other sources I select the following exhibit: 

EPOCH OF CREATION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS AUTHORITIES. 

I. BIBLICAL TEXTS AND VERSIONS. n c 

Septuagint, computation, .... 5586 Septuagint, Alexandrinus, - - - - 5508 

* Hales, Analysis of Chronology, 2d ed., 1830, Vol. I, p. 212. t De Bretonne, Filiations et Migrations des Peuples, 

Paris, 1827, pp. 428-436. 

Septuagint, Vatican, 5270

Samaritan computation, .... 4427 

Samaritan text, 4305 

Hebrew text, 4161 

English Bible (Usher chronology), - - - 4004 

II. JEWISH COMPUTATIONS. Bc 

f Playfair, 5555 

T T !Jackson, 5481 

Josephns, -j Hale§5 5402 

^ Universal history, - - - 4698 

Talmudists, 5344 

Seder Olam Sutha, 4339 

Jewish computation, 4220 

Jewish computation, 4184 

Chinese Jews, 4079 

Some Talmudists, 3761 

Vulgar Jewish computation, - 3760 Seder Olam Rabba, Great Chronicle of the 

World, A.d. 130, 3751 

Rabbi Lipman, 3616 

III. CHRISTIAN AUTHORITIES. B c

Bunsen, 20000 

Rev. T. P. Crawford (in Patriarchal Dynasties, 

p. 164), 12500 

Suidas, 6000 

Clemens Alexandrinus, A.d. 194, - 5624 

Vossius, 5590 

Nicephorus Constantinopolitanus, - 5500 

Hilarion, 5475 

Rev. Dr. Hales, - .... 5411 

Poole, 5361 

Montanus, ------- 5336 

St. Julian and the LXX, - 5205 Eusebius Caesariensis, ----- 5200 

Origen, A.d. 230, 4830 

Kennedy, Bedford, Ferguson, - - - - 4007 

Usher, Lloyd, Calmet and popular opinion, 4004 

Helvetius, Marsham, - 4000 

Petavius, 3983 

Melancthon, 3964 

Luther, 3961 

St. Jerome and Beda, - - - 3952

Scaliger, 3950 

Montanus, 3849 

Hebrew text, 3834 

The interval between the assumed epoch of Creation and the Noachian Deluge presents an equally instructive range of 

opinion. 

THE DELUGE AFTER ADAM. AM 

Bunsen, - - 10000 

Rev. T. P. Crawford, 7727 

Poole, 2262 

Hilarion, 2257 

Josephus, Vossius, Riccioli, Hales, Jackson, - 2256 Suidas, Nicephorus, Eusebius, St. Julian, St. 

Isidore, 2242 

Clemens Alexandrinus, ... - 2148 

Cornelius a Lapide, 1657 

St. Jerome,* Beda, Montanus, Scaliger, Origanus, Emmius, Petavius, Gordonus, Salianus, 

Torniellus, Hervartus, Phillippi, Tirinus, - 1656 

Samaritan Pentateuch (generally), - - 1307 

* St. Augustine says: "From Adam to the Deluge, according to our Sacred Books [i. e. the Septuagint], there have 

elapsed 2242 years, as per our exemplars; and 1656, according to the Hebrews." 

The interval between the Deluge and the Christian Era has been calculated as follows:

THE DELUGE, BEFORE CHRIST. 

Bunsen, 10000 

Bishop Eussell, 5060 

Rev. T. P. Crawford, 4763 

Septuagint, - - 3246 

Jackson, 3170 

Hales, ------- 3155 

Josephus, ------- 3146 

Poole, -------- 3099 

Samaritan text, ------ 2998 

Prof. James Strong, ----- 2515 

Usher and English Bible, - 2348 

Calmet, ------- 2344 

Petavius, - - 2327 

Hebrew text, ------ 2288 

Common Jewish computation, ... 2104 

Biblical chronology has been largely based on statements respecting the ages of the patriarchs. But in this respect the 

different versions vary to a wide extent. This is illustrated by the following table :* 

* Rev. E. B. Elliott, Horce Apocalyptical, iv, p. 254, note; London, 1846. McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia, art. " 

Chronology."

The estimates which I have tabulated respecting the epochs of Creation and of the Deluge exhibit an enormous range 

of opinion in reference to the two great 

* 165 is probably the correct reading. 

t Further, on this subject, see Luke Burke, EthnologicalJournal, 1848, 27, 28, 82, 83, 84, 87, 78-91; Veins 

Testamentum Hebraicum cum variis lectionibus, to]., Oxon., 1776-80, and Vetus Testamentum Grcecum cum variis 

lectionibus, fol., Oxon., 1798-1827; McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia, art. " Chronology "; Smith's Dictionary of 

the Bible, art. "Chronology." See also a learned discussion and an extended Chronological Table by Dr. James Strong, 

in Methodist Quarterly Review for July, 1856, p. 448, and October, p. 600. 

events from which the population of the world is reputed to have proceeded. I am not aware of any specially cogent 

considerations which render any one of the moderate estimates more plausible than another. On general principles, the 

extreme estimates may be regarded less probable than the others. But, disregarding these, we are struck by a 

divergence of opinion so great as to render highly unsafe any pretensions to precise biblical chronology.* Omitting the 

extreme estimates of Bunsen and Crawford, we have, between Suidas and Rabbi Lipman, a discrepancy of 2384 years; 

and these and all the intervening results claim 

* Nevertheless, credulity, which would be amusing if it were not arrogant, has at times fixed on precise months, days 

and hours! "And now," says Rev. Dr. Lightfoot, "hee that desireth to know the yeere of the world, which is now 

passing over us this yeere, 1644, will find it to be 5572 yeeres just now finished since the Creation; and the yeere 5573 

of the world's age, now newly begunne this September at the Êquinox." (Lightfoot, Harmony of the Foure 

Evangelistes, London, 1644,1st part, Proleg., last page.) Again: "VIth day of Creation . . . his [Adam's] wife the weaker 

vessell; she not yet knowing that there were any devils at all . . . sinned, and drew her husband into the same 

transgression with her; this was about high noone, the time of eating. And in this lost condition, into which Adam and 

Eve had now brought themselves, did they lie comfortlesse, till toward the cool of the day, or three o'clock aflernoone .

. . [God] expelleth them out of Eden, and so fell Adam on the day that he was created." (Lightfoot, Harmony, 

Chronicle and Order of the Old Testament, London, 1647, p. 5.) Another authority says: "We do not speak of the 

theory set forth in a work entitled Nouveau Systeme des Temps, by Gilbert, father and son. This system, which is not 

so new as its title seems to announce, gives the world only 3600 years of duration, down to the 1st of July, 1836; and 

makes Adam's birth 1797 years before J. C.,on the 1st of July." (De Bretonne, Filiations et Migrations des Peuples, 

Paris, 1827, Vol. II, p. 160.) And again: "It is, besides, generally allowed by chronologists, that the beginning of the 

patriarchal year was computed from the autumnal equinox which fell on October 20th, B.C. 4005, the year of the 

Creation." (Rev. F.Nolan, The Egyptian Chronology Analyzed, London, 1848, p. 392.) So far as I know, modern 

theology does not sympathize with such pretensions. 

to be based on inspired revelation. It must be quite apparent that Revelation, whatever its authenticity, has not revealed 

the age of the world. With the same exclusions, we find a range of 955 years in the estimate of time between the 

Creation and the Deluge. This is fifty-seven per cent of the whole interval as commonly accepted. But Crawford's 

calculation, also based strictly on biblical data, gives a discrepancy of 6420 years, which is nearly four times the 

generally accepted interval. The date of the Deluge, by common Jewish computation, is 1142 years less remote than 

according to the Septuagint, and 2659 years more recent than Crawford's judgment places it. 

The creation of the world, if we place any reliance upon geological evidences, was not a compact event which can be 

referred to any definite date as an epoch. If we attribute to the "creative days" the extended, aeonic signification 

requisite to effect a tolerable adjustment with geological periods, it still remains to view the advent of Adam as a well 

defined event, naturally referable to a precise epoch; and this may be assumed as the date which stands for the "epoch 

of Creation." According, then, to the leading interpretations which have been put upon the biblical documents, the 

appearance of Adam on the earth must be held to have taken place between 3834 B.c. and 6000 B.c. 

On biblical authority, sustained by many traditions, a great deluge occurred in western Asia at a date which, following 

the moderate estimates again, must range between 1656 and 2262 years after the advent of Adam. The majority of 

biblical students have regarded this deluge as causing the destruction of all mankind, except Noah and his family. They 

hold, accordingly, that all existing populations are descended from this family. Most others, who maintain the local 

nature of the deluge, hold that all existing populations are descended from Adam, and that the popular chronology 

affords all the time requisite for the growth of ethnic distinctions. 

As to the time allowed by a chronology based on biblical interpretation, I have no motive for desiring it long or short. 

It is fair to presume that biblical students have done the best which is possible in reference to sacred chronology. If the 

results reached conflict with other chronologies, or with the facts of science, it is gratifying to know that the Bible 

itself is so thoroughly unchronological that the collision can be felt only by chronological theorists, who have 

endeavored to deduce from the bible lessons which it does not teach. 

"From this discrepancy," says the orthodox Prichard, "we may infer securely, as it seems to me, that the biblical 

writers had no revelation on the subject of chronology, but computed the succession of time from such data as were 

accessible to them. . . . By some it will be objected, to the conclusions at which I have arrived, that there exists, 

according to my hypothesis, no chronology, properly so termed, of the earliest ages, and that no means are to be found 

for ascertaining the real age of the world. This I am prepared to admit; and I observe that the ancient Hebrews seem to 

have been of the same opinion, since the scriptural writers have always avoided the attempt to compute the period in 

question. . . . Beyond that event [the arrival of Abraham in Palestine] we can never know how many centuries, nor how 

many chiliads of years may have elapsed since the first man of clay received the image of God and the breath of Life." 

* So

* Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 1847, Vol. V, note on the Biblical Chronology, pp. 557, 

560, 569, 570. 

Baron Bunsen: "As regards the Jewish computation of time, the study of Scripture had long convinced me that there is 

in the Old Testament no connected chronology prior to Solomon. All that now passes for a system of ancient 

chronology, beyond that fixed point, is the melancholy legacy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries— a 

compound of intentional deceit and utter misconception of the principles of historical research." * Sylvester de Sacy, 

one of the most erudite orientalists of the age, and at the same time a devoted christian believer, used to say "There is 

no biblical chronology, "f The abbe Le Hir, a learned and venerable ecclesiastic, recognized as an oracle of sacred 

exegesis, has borne testimony that "biblical chronology is uncertain; it is left to human sciences to discover the date of 

the creation of our species. "| Francois Lenormant himself, who formally declares his adhesion to the doctrine of the 

inspiration of the Sacred Scriptures, admits: "The first element of a real and scientific chronology is absolutely 

wanting; we have no element for determining the measure of the time by means of which the ages of the patriarchs are 

computed; and nothing is more vague than the word 'year' when no precise explanation of it is given." § 

* Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, London, 1848,Vol. I, Preface, pp. 1, 2. 

t " II n'y a pas de chronologie biblique." 

t Quoted by F. Lenormant, in Les Premieres Civilizations, Vol. I, p. 53. 

§ F. Lenormant, Les Premieres Civilizations, Etudes d'Histoire et d'Archeologie, Paris, 1874, Vol. I, p. 53. The biblical 

genealogies, he says, have no other object than other Semitic genealogies — those of the Arabs, for instance,— and 

that is, "to establish a direct affiliation by means of the most salient personages, omitting many intermediate degrees." 

(Ib., p. 54.) "C'est pour ces raisons de'cisives qu'il n'y a pas en realite de chronologie biblique." See also his Ancient 

History, Eng. trans., Vol. I, p. 40. 

Such is the general opinion of critical investigators, among whom I might further cite Rev. Dr. John Kenrick, Prof. 

Charles Lenormant, Luke Burke, as well as Lesueur, Barruchi, Lepsius, Kennicott, and many others. Instead, therefore, 

of feeling constrained by the demands of biblical chronology, we may feel perfectly free to seek the world's dates from 

every accessible source. We may admire, then, without envying, the sweet and serene credulity with which a 

distinguished theologian characterizes these dateless chronicles as "the circumstantial,positive, Closely Connected 

series of biblical annals." * 

As, however, I am reasoning with biblical interpreters on the basis of their own assumptions respecting Hebrew 

chronology, I will adopt for my use, from Prof. James Strong, f the following datum: 

End of the Deluge, 2515 B.c. 

The epoch of Creation, or advent of Adam upon the earth, I will assume at the date which christian chronologers have 

been content to adopt from Archbishop Usher:\ 

Creation of Adam, 4004 B.c. From these data we get 

From Adam to the end of the Deluge, 1489 years.

* Methodist Quarterly Review, April, 1878, p. 206. 

t Prof. James Strong, "Egyptian Chronology," in Methodist Quarterly Review, April, 1878, p. 1, and July, 1878, p. 462, 

table. See also the elaborate article on "Chronology," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia. 

| Usserius Jac, Annates Veteris Testamenti; una cum Rerum Asiaticarum et JEgyptiacarum Chronico. Fol., London, 

1650.

Chapter 9 

Elements of Egyptian Chronology 

NEXT to the Hebrew documents, no records pretend to reach so high an antiquity as those of Egypt. They do not 

aspire to date from the creation of the world, nor do they trace the descent of mankind from a single family divinely 

rescued from a pcenal deluge; but they furnish a basis for chronological estimates which remount, in the hands of the 

German Egyptologists, to an antiquity quite fabulous. Even dismissing these fabulous claims, Egyptian history is 

thought by some eminent authorities to reach back far beyond the date commonly assigned for the appearance of 

Adam. These facts seem to have created an exigency which all predetermined reliance on so-called biblical chronology 

has felt summoned to meet.* Egyptian chronologers are thus divided into two schools: those who hold to the long 

chronology, and 

* " I am aware that the Era of Menes might be carried back to a much more remote period than the date I have 

assigned it; but, as we have as yet no authority further than the uncertain accounts of Manetho's copyists to enable us 

to fix the time and the number of reigns intervening between his accession and that of Apappus, I have not placed him 

earlier for fear of interfering with the date of ihe deluge of Noah, which is 2348 B.C." (J. G. Wilkinson, Topography of 

Thebes and General View of Egypt, London, 1835, pp. 506, 509.) Again: "We are led to the necessity of allowing an 

immeasurable time for the total formation of that space which, to judge from the very little accumulation of its soil, 

and the small distance it has encroached on the sea, since the erection of the ancient cities within it, would require 

ages, and throw back its origin far beyond the deluge,, those who hold to the short chronology. The short chronologers 

endeavor to keep within some admissible theory of Hebrew dates; the long chronologers entirely ignore the Hebrew 

dates, and do not deem it important to adjust Egyptian chronology to any existing scheme of Hebrew chronology. 

The sources of information respecting the chronology of Egypt are scanty, dislocated and irreconcilable. The Egyptians 

did not surpass the Hebrews in the possession of a chronological instinct. "The evidence of the monuments," says 

Poole, "is neither full nor explicit." "Chronology," says Baron Bunsen,* "cannot be elicited from them." "The greatest 

obstacle," says Mariette,f "to the establishment of a regular Egyptian chronology is the circumstance that the Egyptians 

themselves never had any chronology at alV 

The materials for Egyptian chronology are the "monuments" and the remains of the historical work of Manetho, an 

Egyptian priest under the Ptolemies, who wrote in Greek about b.c. 280-250. His information professed to be derived 

from the archives of the Egyptian temples. The original is lost, and we possess only certain abstracts preserved by 

Eusebius^: and 

or even the Mosaic era of the creation." (Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, etc., 1st Ser., 

1837-41,1, pp. 5-11; II, pp. 105-121.) "Strong reasons are given by Mr. Stuart Poole for fixing the date of his [Menes'] 

accession at B.c. 2717 (Horc e jEgyptiacce, pp. 94-98); hut even this date must be somewhat lowered, as it would 

precede that of the Flood (b. C. 251."))." (McClintock & Strong's Cyclopcedia, Vol. III, p. 96. See also lb., p. 91, and 

Strong, Methodist Quarterly Review, April, 1878, p. 197.) 

* Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, I, p. 32. 

t In Lenormant, Histoire ancienne de VOrient, Vol. I, p. 322; Am. ed. I, p. 198. 

JEusebius, Chronicon, Can., I, 20. Supposed based directly on a recension of Manetho's Aiyvmm by Julius Africanus.

Latin and Armenian versions still exist. See J. J. Scaliger's Eusebii Pamphili Syncellus,* and a few excerpts contained 

in the writings of Josephus. f The Egyptian chronology of Herodotus is perhaps an independent compilation. Manetho 

appears to have enumerated thirty-one dynasties of Egyptian kings down to the Alexandrian conquest. Eleven of them 

belonged to the Old Empire; six to the Middle Empire, and fourteen to the New Empire. The duration of each dynasty 

is stated, and the impression is given that all the dynasties were consecutive. This arrangement would cause them to 

cover a period ranging, according to the different authorities for the Manethonian numbers, from 5,040 to 5,358 years, 

— that is, a period stretching back to 5372 B.c. or 5678 B.c. But, according to Syncellus, Manetho made the whole 

period covered by these Egyptian dynasties fall within 3,555 years. This discrepancy maybe explained by assuming that 

certain of the dynasties were contemporaneous. Other indications exist that they should be so considered. A fragment 

from Manetho, preserved by Josephus, speaks of the "Kings of the Thebaid and of the rest of Egypt" rising against the 

"Shepherds." Poole asserts positively that kings who unquestionably belong to different dynasties are shown by them 

[the monuments] to be contemporary.^: Strong summarizes several evidences of this kind.§ The general consecutive 

arrangement of the dynasties 

Chronicorum Canonum omnimodce histories libri duo, in Thesaurus Temporum, 1606. 

* Syncellus, Chronograph, p. 55-78. This is regarded only as a recension of the dilapidated work of Eusebius. 

t Josephus, Contra Apionem, i, 14, 15, 26. See an account of Manetho by Prof. James Strong, Methodist Quarterly 

Review, April 1878. 

X Smith, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 1, p. 507, col. 1. § Strong, "Egyptian Chronology," in Methodist Quarterly 

Review, July, 1878, p. 464. 

was accepted until modern times, though a method of condensation began as early as the third and second centuries 

before Christ, under the Ptolemies, at the hands of Eratosthenes and Apollodorus. Most Egyptologists are now 

disposed to admit the principle of parallelisms among them. Mariette is said by Canon Rawlinson to be the only living 

investigator of the original documents who holds to the consecutive arrangement.* The diversity of results arises from 

divergent views respecting the extent to which different dynasties are to be regarded as contemporaneous. 

A good deal of light has been thrown upon Manetho's table by the "monuments"—tablets, papyri, genealogical lists 

and stelae, f The principal aids of 

* Canon Rawlinson, Origin of Nations, p. 25. Mariette says: "There were undoubtedly dynasties in Egypt which 

reigned simultaneously; but Manetho has rejected them, and has admitted none but those reckoned legitimate; the 

secondary dynasties are no longer in his lists." Again: "There is superabundant monumental proof collected by 

Egyptologers to show that all the royal races enumerated by the priest of Sebennytus [Manetho] occupied the throne 

one after the other." (Quoted by Lenormant, Histoire ancienne de VOrient, Vol. I, pp. 323, 324, Am. ed., Vol. I, p. 

198-9.) 

t For a brief account of these, see Strong, in Methodist Quarterly Review, April, 1878, p. 198 et seq. See, also, the 

Cyclopaedias, and Lenormant, Ancient History of the East, Am. ed., pp. 199-201. Some of the most important original 

works are the following: Champollion le jeune, Monuments, Paris, 1829-1847; Lepsius, Denkmaler, Leipzig,, 1849 et 

seq., and Chronologie der Êgypter, Leipzig, 1849; Rosellini, Monumenti, Pisa, 1832-44; Brugsch, Recueil de 

Monuments Egyptiens, Paris, 1862-3, and Histoire d'Egypte, Paris, 1869 et seq.; Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal 

History (trans.), London, 1850-9; Herodotus (ed. Rawlinson, Vols. I—III, London and New York, 1861); Poole, Horce 

JEgyptiacce, London, 1851; Kenrick, Egypt under the Pharaohs, London and New York, 1852; Unger, Chronologie

des Manetho, Berlin, 1867. A convenient compendium is Samuel Sharpe's History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till 

the Conquest by the Arabs, A. D. 640, 2 vols., London, 1876 (6th ed.). 

this class are the following: 1. The "Turin Papyrus," a roll at present in the Turin Museum, containing a list of the 

Egyptian kings from the first (Menes) down to the close of the Fifteenth Dynasty. Dr. Strong says: "It is literally 

composed of innumerable fragments of all shapes and sizes, with numerous gaps between them and abrasions on the 

edges." This document was put together by Seyffarth, a German scholar, in accordance with principles of 

decipherment which have not received the unanimous sanction of hierologists,* though Lepsius and Bunsen have 

given the arrangement their unequivocal endorsement, and Wilkinson edited the document in 1840. 2. The "Tablet of 

Abydos,'' from a temple in upper Egypt, containing originally a list of fifty kings (twenty of which, however, are lost), 

copied, apparently, from the next named tablet. This is in the British Museum. 3. The "New Tablet qf Abydos"—new, 

because more recently discovered, though it seems to be the original of the preceding, and supplies nearly all its 

vacancies. It is carved on the walls of one of the subterranean passage-ways in the temple called Memnonium, at 

Abydos (This), in upper Egypt. It contains the names of seventy-seven kings of the first nineteen dynasties. 4. The 

"Tablet of Sakkdrah" found in the mortuary chapel of a priest at Sakkarah, in lower Egypt, contains the names of fiftyeight 

kings. It forms a part of the Khedive's collection at Cairo. 5. The "Tablet of Karnak," found in the Hall of 

Ancestors, at Karnak, now in Paris, contains, in an interrupted series, the names of sixty-one predecessors of Thotmes 

III. 6. Detached "Stelw," or inscriptions containing the names and line 

* Osburn, Monumental History of Egypt, Vol. I, p. 227; Vol. II, pp. 124, 125. 

ages of royal or sacred personages. More than five hundred of such inscriptions have been removed to the Louvre, in 

Paris. 

Comparing these imperfect sources of information together, Egyptologists have variously decided to what extent the 

system of parallelisms shall be admitted in the Egyptian dynasties. Sir Gardner Wilkinson and Canon Rawlinson have 

given their approval to Poole's arrangement, which brings the "Era of Menes" at 2717 B.c. Dr. Strong has thought it 

desirable to condense still further, so as to bring the Era of Menes at 2417 B.c., which, according to his chronology, is 

ninetyeight years after the Flood. Lepsius and Bunsen are generally regarded the ablest of the long chronologers. 

Lepsius puts the Era of Menes at 3892 B.c., and Bunsen at 3623 B.c., and more recently at 3059 B.c., which is only six 

hundred and forty-two years farther back than Strong's determination, — an interval which, as I have indicated, is far 

within the chances of error in the determination of the epoch of the Flood. 

Lenormant regards the Eleventh Dynasty as contemporaneous with the Ninth and Tenth, and the Fourteenth as 

contemporary with the Thirteenth. 

Brugsch makes the Ninth and Tenth contemporary with the Eighth and Eleventh; the Fourteenth with the Thirteenth; 

the Seventeenth with the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and part of the Eighteenth, and the Twentyfifth with the end of the 

Fourteenth and the beginning of the Twenty-sixth. 

Bunsen goes a step farther, placing the Second, Fifth, Ninth, Tenth, Fourteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth in the list 

of collateral dynasties, regarding them as parallel with the Third, Sixth, Eighth and Fifteenth. 

Poole, followed by Wilkinson, makes the Third Dynasty contemporaneous with the First; the Second with the Sixth; 

the Ninth, Tenth and Eleventh with the Sixth; the Twelfth and Thirteenth (at Thebes), the Fourteenth (at Xois), and the 

three Shepherd dynasties— the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth — with the Seventh and Eighth (at Memphis).

A comparative diagram is here presented, showing a system of dynastic parallelism announced by Wilkinson,* and, by 

its side, a late conclusion published by Dr. James Strong. 

* Wilkinson, The Fragments of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin. Respecting this table Wilkinson says: "The relative 

positions, and the lengths of most of these dynasties, are founded upon some kind of monumental authority. The rest I 

placed within approximate extremes. There are several points of exact contemporaneousness, as in the Second and 

Fourth and Fifth Dynasties; again, in the Fifth and Fifteenth, and in the Ninth and Eleventh; and these, with other 

evidences of the same nature, enable us to adjust the general scheme of all the dynasties." {Hieratic Papyrus, pp. 30, 

31.) Dr. Strong says of his table: "The principal difference between our scheme and that of Poole [which Wilkinson 

substantially adopts] is in the neglecting of the Sothic dates, to which he arbitrarily [?] adapts his whole chronology." 

(Strong, "Egyptian Chronology," in Methodist Quarterly Review, July, 1878, p. 468.) 

The various dates thus arrived at for the "Era of Menes" may now be exhibited in the following table: 

THE ERA OF MENES. b.c.

Champollion-Figeac (1840), - - - - 5867 

Lesueur (1848), 5773 

Bockh (1845), 5702 

Unger, 5613 

Henry (1846), 5305 

Mariette and Lenormant (1871), - - - 5004 

Lenormant (1839), 4915 

Barucchi (1845), ------ 4890 

Brugsch (1859), ------ 4455 

Brugsch (1875), Pickering (1854), - - 4400 

Hincks (1851), 3895 

Lepsius (1849), Kenrick (1851), - - - 3892 

Bunsen (early view, 1845), - 3643 

Bunsen (later view), 3059 

Birch, 3000 

Uhlemann and Seyffarth, - - - -2781 

Poole, - - - - - - - - 2718 

Wilkinson, - - - - - - - 2691 

Strong (1878), ------ 2515

The highest estimates have been generally abandoned. The result obtained by Mariette—5004 B.c.— is the highest 

remaining under discussion. Between Mariette and Strong is a difference of 2489 years. The figures of Lepsius and 

Bunsen occupy a mean between the resulting extremes. Lepsius fixes the Era of Menes 1112 years later than Mariette, 

and 1377 years earlier than Strong. Bunsen ' s later view fixes that era 1945 years later than Mariette and 544 years 

earlier than Strong. With such contradictions, it would be dogmatism for a hierological layman to fix permanently on 

any particular date. According to the maxim that safety lies between extremes,* I should feel inclined to side with 

Lepsius and Bunsen. It is no light thing to set aside conclusions based on researches so extensive as those of Lepsius. 

As early as 1834 Richard Lepsius had gained a prize essay that placed him in the front of linguistic scholarship. In 

1842 he was commissioned by Frederic IV, of Prussia, to represent German scholarship in the prosecution of 

researches in the valley of the Nile. He was accompanied by a staff of eight coadjutors. By May, 1843, he announced 

the discovery of the sites of thirty pyramids previously unknown. All belonged, moreover, to the ancient kingdom of 

Egypt, before the irruption of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings (about 2000 b.C.). He prosecuted his labors till the history 

of sixty-seven pyramids and one hundred and thirty private tombs had been made out, reaching back to the fourth 

chiliad before Christ. The Prussians then proceeded up the river, exploring every foot of ground, as far as Soba, on the 

Blue Nile, and Sennar, to the thirteenth degree of north latitude. While his assistants continued subsequently their 

labors among the ruins of Thebes, Lepsius explored the Sinaitic peninsula, accumulating records belonging between 

the Fourth and Twelfth Dynasties. Returning to Thebes, he left it again to extend his researches over the land of 

Goshen and much of Palestine, and finally returned to Berlin, after an absence of three years. The remainder of his life 

has been devoted to working out results from the vast accumulation of material which rewarded the expedition. Efforts 

have been made to check the historical and monumental results by a determination of the maximum age of the delta on 

which Egyptian civilization 

* In medio tutissimus ibis. (Virg. Êneid.) 

was reared. Girard, in 1799, began such an investigation, but it was interrupted by warlike operations then in progress. 

Geological estimates had fixed roughly on seven thousand years as a minimum antiquity for the Nilotic delta. More 

recent investigations, however, have brought out a more reliable result. The annual inundation of the Nile deposits a 

sediment ascertained to amount to .4134 of a foot per century. Numerous excavations, made in various parts of the 

delta, show that the Nilotic deposit nowhere exceeds 26.25 feet in depth.* Beneath this is found everywhere a bed of 

sea-sand which is still saturated with salt water, f Now the ascertained rate of deposit shows that about 6350 years 

have been occupied in the formation of the delta. This, supposing the data of the calculation quite reliable, may be set 

down as a maximum antiquity, which the first settlement upon the delta of Egypt cannot have surpassed. It carries us 

back to B.c. 4500.^: It is not, of course, known what was the condition of the delta when first reached by the posterity 

of Adam. Herodotus, however, tells us that in the time of Menes, the first king, the valley of the Nile was a swamp 

below Thebes ;§ and he expresses the opinion that "the country above Memphis seems formerly to have been an arm 

of the sea." || The first empire seems to have been established at This, not very far below Thebes; but the Third 

Dynasty set up rule at Memphis, at a date not much later; so that 

* De Lanoye, Ramses le Grand, ou VEgypte il y a 3300 ans. Amer. trans., Barneses the Great, New York, 1870, pp. 

30, 31. t Klunzinger, Upper Egypt, p. 136. 

X Le Hon puts the age of the delta at 5000 to 6000 B.C., and states that independent researches of Sebas and 

Wilkinson guide to the same result. Le Hon, Li'Homme fossile, p. 263. 

§ Herodotus, History, Book ii, § 4. | lb., ii, § 10. 

desiccation of the delta must have been completed as far as Memphis at an epoch not far removed from the 

establishment of kingly rule in Egypt. If, then, the commencement of the delta reaches back only to 4500 B.c., I could 

hardly discover ground for carrying back the Era of Menes beyond the date assigned byLepsius, 3892 B.c.

From two considerations not yet mentioned it would seem that Mizraitic occupation of the valley of the Nile must be 

allowed as high an antiquity as the geological conditions permit. At the epoch of Menes the Egyptians were already a 

civilized and numerous people. Manetho says that Athothis, the son of Menes, built the palace at Memphis; that he was 

a physician, and left anatomical books. "All these statements imply that, even at this early period, the Egyptians were 

in a high state of civilization."* "In the time of Menes," states another authority, "the Egyptians had long been 

architects, sculptors, painters, mythologists and theologians." Of the same opinion is Prof. Richard Owen: "Egypt is 

recorded to have been a civilized and governed community before the time of Menes. . . . The pastoral community of a 

group of nomad families, as portrayed in the Pentateuch, may be admitted as an early step in civilization. But how far 

in advance of this stage is a nation administered by a kingly government, consisting of grades of society, with divisions 

of labor, of which one kind, assigned to the priesthood, was to record or chronicle the names and dynasties of the 

kings, the durations and chief events of their reigns! 

"The traditions of the priestly historians, as received and recorded by Herodotus and Diodorus, refer to a long 

antecedent period of the existence of the 

* McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia,Yo\. III, p. 96, 2d col. 

Egyptians as an administered community; the final phase of which, prior to the assumption of the crown by Menes, 

was analogous to that of the Judges in Israel, or the Papacy at Rome, a government mainly by priests."* 

There is something of a basis here on which we may form a general estimate of the duration of Egyptian history before 

Menes. What period has been required by other nationalities for the elements of regular government to organize 

themselves? The Jews, from the time of Abraham, 2164 B.c. (Strong), to Othniel, the first of the Judges, 1575 B.c., a 

period of 589 years, were nomadic, without settled government, and decidedly barbaric in their culture, though they 

had been 216 years in contact with the civilization of the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth 

Dynasties of Egypt. They can hardly be said to have attained a definite form of government before the accession of 

Saul, 482 years later. That is, the Jews required over a thousand years to develop an organized monarchy. The rise of 

Babylonian monarchy, according to Sir Henry Rawlinson, dates from 2234 B.c. If, according to Strong, the end of the 

Flood dated from 2515 B.c., this nation had only 281 years of nomadic existence; but the date of the Flood 

* Prof. Richard Owen, in Leisure Hour for May, 1876, reprinted in Rawlinson's Origin of Nations, Appendix, p. 261. 

See also Owen's Address before the " International Congress of Orientalists," on Man's Early History, September 20, 

1874, reprinted in the New York "Tribune Extra," November 23. Compare also the Address of Sir John Hawkshaw, 

before the British Association, Bristol, 1875. Menes, nevertheless, is by many identified with the Indian Menu, and 

Sharpe, accordingly, affirms that he "was not wholly withdrawn from the region of fable." (Hist, of Egypt, i, p. 10.) 

The certain monuments, however, of the early dynasties show that Menes was not far removed from actual terrestrial 

events. 

is extremely uncertain. We have no means of ascertaining the duration of the nomadic state of the Indians, Medes or 

other peoples of the ancient world. It is not likely, however, that their advancement was more rapid than that of the 

Jews. The Kelts, an Aryan nationality, made their appearance in the north of Italy about 650 B.c.; but for centuries 

before this they had wandered as barbarous hordes from the east of Europe to Gaul and the Iberian peninsula, and 

back to Gaul. The Thracians, from whom they diverged, were in Attica as early as 2000 B.c., and it can hardly be 

doubted that the Kelts had a separate existence as early as 1500 B.c. They were still barbarous in the time of Caesar, 

50 B.c. It would be entirely safe to assume that they spent a thousand years in a nomadic and barbarous condition. The 

Germans were known as pastoral and agricultural tribes in the time of Caesar, and had probably existed already some 

hundreds of years since the date of their differentiation from the Thracian or from the older Kimmerian stock. They did

not attain to a generally organized system of government till the time of Clovis, 481 A.d. In the light of such facts, it 

should not surprise us to learn that the Egyptians had lived a pastoral and more or less wandering life for a thousand 

years before the Era of Menes. This is the more probable since, at that age of the world, the seeds of civilization had 

not yet been developed in contiguous nations, to be disseminated by commerce and even by wars. If, then, we assume 

Lepsius' date, 3892 B.c., for the Era of Menes, the epoch of the separate existence of the Egyptian people might mount 

to 4892 B.c., which is 400 years before the earliest deposits in the Nilotic delta. Upper Egypt, however, was even then 

ready to receive its Adamite population. 

An important fact in this connection is the admission of women to the throne, as early as the reign of the third king of 

the Second Dynasty, or about 376 years after the Era of Menes.* Such an exaltation of woman, as even Sharpe admits, 

implies a long antecedent monarchical and tribal existence. "The country," he says, speaking of a Theban queen, "must 

have been long governed by monarchs before the custom of hereditary succession could have been so well established 

as to allow the crown to be worn by a woman. It is only in a settled state of society that the strong give way to the 

weak. Men would not form a monarchy [of any kind] in a very early stage. They must have united together and 

resisted the usurpations of the strong, and felt the evils of anarchy, before agreeing to obey a king. And again, law 

must, for many generations, have gained the mastery over violence, before the peaceable regularity of the hereditary 

monarch could have been preferred to the turbulent vigor of the elected chief'f Such reflections seem little compatible 

with the same author's opinion that Menes could hardly have been withdrawn from "the region of fable." 

The other consideration to which I alluded concerns the Sothic period of 1461 years. This is measured by the 

synchronous risings of the Dog-star and the sun on the first day of the Egyptian year. We have a heliacal rising of the 

star in the first thoth or month of the year, recorded in Egypt, which is shown by astronomical calculations to have 

occurred at 1322 p.c. The period or Sothis ending at that date, began 2783 B.c. It is reasonable to suppose that the 

Egyp. 

* S. Birch, Egypt from the Earliest Times, pp. 26-7. t Sharpe, History of Egypt, i, 28-9. 

tian observers, to learn the length of the period, must have been consummate astronomers — which they were not — 

or must have continued their observations from the date of the preceding conjunction, 4244 B.c. Another astronomical 

period noted in connection with Egyptian history is that of the "reappearance of the Phoenix." This, according to 

Tacitus, was also 1461 years; and Tacitus mentions three appearances, connecting with them the names of three 

Egyptian sovereigns.* Astronomical data thus carry us back into recognized antediluvial times; and Dr. Strong thinks 

that "nothing satisfactory results." 

A few statements regarding the general tenor of Egyptian history will suffice for the present. It is only needful to 

indicate a chronological and historical scale to which we may hereafter refer important facts connected with Egyptian 

ethnology. Of the First, Second and Third Dynasties we know little more than the names of the kings. During the 

Second it was determined that women could hold the sovereign power. The pyramid of Meydoum belongs to this 

dynasty; and some architecture of the period is quite similar to that of the Fourth Dynasty. At Meydoum were found 

two statues having a European cast of features. Serbes of the Third Dynasty was celebrated for his "knowledge or 

patronage of the medical art, and is stated to have invented the art of building with polished stones, and also to have 

given attention to the making of inscriptions or writings." f Of the Fourth Dynasty, the surviving vestiges astonish us. 

To this belong the most famous pyramids. "On these wondrous monuments we find traces, at that remote period, 

*Sce further, Poole, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, I, p. 506, and Hone .Et/i/ptiaae, p. 12 et seq., Pt. 1, Nos. 5, 6. t 

Birch, Egypt from the Earliest Times, p. 30. 

of the advanced state of civilization of later ages. The cursive character scrawled on the stones by the masons proves

that writing had been long in common use. Many of the blocks brought from Syene are built together in the pyramids 

of Gizeh in a manner unrivaled at any period. The same manners and customs are portrayed on them as on the later 

monuments. The same boats are used, the same costume of the priests, the same trades, such as glass-blowing and 

cabinet-making." The copper mines of the peninsula of Sinai were worked at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty.* 

Prof. Richard Owen, speaking of the civilization of the Fourth Dynasty, says: "Unprepossessed and sober experience 

teaches that arts, language, literature, are of slow growth, the results of gradual development, as would be expected, in 

a civilization which had culminated in a creed, a ritual, a priesthood, in convictions of a future life and judgment, of 

the 'resurrection of the body,' with the resulting instinct of its preservation,—an instinct in which kings alone could 

indulge to the height of a pyramid. The administrative arrangements through which compulsory labors could be 

regulated and carried on, with more consideration than Mohamed Ali gave or cared for, in the construction of the 

Mahmoudi canal; the monthly relays of Pharaoh's workmen; the commissariat as it was recorded on the original 

polished exterior of the Great Pyramid; the settled grades of Egyptian society, and the 'Thirty Commandments' 

governing their moral life,— 'commandments' by the people held to be 'divine,' seeing that thereby the soul was tested 

and the deeds of the flesh weighed before the judgment-seat of Osiris;— these are not the signs of an incipient 

civilization." 

*McClintock and Strong, Cyclopcedia, III, p. 96. 

The Fifth Dynasty receives much light from the Turin papyrus; and all its kings, except one, have been recovered from 

the tombs through the labors of the Prussian commission. The oldest extant hieratic papyrus is of this age — the 

"Prisse papyrus"—and abounds in moral precepts reminding one of the "Wisdom of Solomon." The Sixth Dynasty has 

been tolerably well revealed. Of the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Tenth and Eleventh little is known. The Twelfth has 

yielded much more information, thanks to the labors of Lepsius. It is marked architecturally by the employment of 

obelisks. The Thirteenth and Fourteenth still remain in the mist. We come now to the Middle Empire, or reign of the 

Shepherd Kings, covering the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties. They afford very few monuments. The 

Manethonian period of 511 years is supposed to cover the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. The Shepherds were 

foreign dynasties, and the tendency of opinion is to regard them as Phoenician.* 

With the Eighteenth Dynasty, and the beginning of the New Empire, we strike solid chronological ground. This is 

generally admitted to mark the epoch of about 1500 b.c.f To this dynasty belong Amosis, Thotmes I, II and III, and 

Amunoph I, II and III. Now first appears the domestic horse. Amunoph I made con 

* Prof. Richard Owen states: "When finally driven out, they were pursued by the victorious Amosis as far as Palestine, 

as that pregnant cotemporary record translated by M. Chabas teaches." (Address on Man's Earliest History, Tribune 

ed., p. 29.) Dr. McCausland states: "There is cogent and persuasive evidence that they passed eastward to the Euphrates 

valley, through India and Cochin China, to the western shores of the American continent." (McCausland, Adam and 

the Adamite, p. 226.) 

t The date is placed by S. Birch at 1000 B.C. {Egypt from the Monuments, p. 81.) 

quests in Ethiopia and Asia. In his time the Egyptians had adopted the five intercalary days. True arches bearing his 

name on the bricks have been found at Thebes. Under Thotmes I the conquests of Egypt were extended to 

Mesopotamia and Lybia. Thotmes III (Sesostris) carried his arms as far as the confines of India, and perhaps reduced 

Babylon. He exacted tribute from northern Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Phoenicia. Rich trophies were brought 

back also from the conquest of southern nations. This was the meridian of Egyptian art. The name of Thotmes IV is 

borne by the Sphinx at the pyramids. Amenhept II made conquest of the city of Nineveh.

There is evidence that during this dynasty the Egyptian race became somewhat mixed, especially the royal line. Large 

numbers of prisoners were repeatedly introduced, both from the north and the south. Aahmes (Amosis) married a 

Keshite ("Ethiopian") wife, who, after his death, reigned as queen AahmesNefertari, said by Birch to have been a 

"Negress," though Birch does not discriminate between "black and copper-colored Negroes."* Amenhept III 

(Amenophis) reduced great numbers of Negroes (JVahsu) to slavery. They were enumerated as so many "head," a sign 

of contempt, which indicates that the queen of Aahmes had not been a "Negress." The queen Tii is painted in pink, or 

flesh-color, and was undoubtedly Aryan. During the Nineteenth Dynasty similar processes were going on, and 

thousands of prisoners were introduced from Libya, among them some Achaian allies. The effect of these intermixtures 

is perceived in the portraits of the sovereigns, and must have been similarly shown in a modified ethnic cast of the 

people. 

* S. Birch, Egypt from the Monuments, p. 116. 

To the Nineteenth Dynasty belong Rameses I, II and III. Rameses II is otherwise known as "Rameses the Great." "If 

he did not exceed all others in foreign conquests, he far outshone them in the grandeur and beauty of the temples with 

which he adorned Egypt and Nubia." 

No other oriental nation of the Mediterranean race has been conceded a monumental antiquity equal to that of the 

Egyptians. A search for their chronologies would, therefore, throw no additional light on the question of the amount of 

time at our disposal for an explanation of the racial divergences of mankind. The Cushite or Accadian Dynasty of 

Babylon, however, had run its career previous to 2500 B.c. I shall content myself, therefore, with presenting a table 

embodying the final results of chronological investigations: 

G. Rawlinson. 

Date of the Deluge, according to the Septuagint B.C. 

[Strong 2515], - 3200 

Rise of monarchy in Egypt [Lepsius 3892, 

Strong 2417], ------ 2450' 

Rise of monarchy in Babylon [Median Dynasty 

2500, Lenorm.j, - - - - - - 2300 

Earliest traces of civilization in Asia Minor, - 2000 

Rise of Phoenicia, - 1550 

Rise of Assyria [Ismi-Dagon, first king of Assyria, placed by George Smith at 1850-1820], 1500 Earliest Iranic 

civilization [Zendavesta], - 1500 Earliest Indie civilization [Vedas], - - 1200 Earliest Hellenic civilization [Homer], -

1200 Phrygian and Lydian civilizations commence, 900 Etruscan civilization commences [according to d'Arbois de 

Jubainville, 992 to 974. See ante, chapters iii, v, - - - - - 650 

Lycian civilization commences, - 600> 

The records of the Chinese attain an antiquity perhaps exceeding that of Egypt. Fu-hi is the Menes of China. He was 

the head of a prehistoric dynasty of "five sovereigns," whose united reigns covered a space, according to Dr. Williams, 

the Sinologist, of 647 years; according to Prof. Kidd, of 1164 years. The exact epoch of Fu-hi's accession is,of course, 

not known, but it is estimated at 3000 to 3468 B.c. Some traditions make his era vastly more remote.* Chronology 

* Tradition recounts older dynasties than that of Fu-hi, which, like the Manethonian reigns of gods and heroes, signify 

for us only the ignorance, conjecture and fancy which hover over the beginnings of national existence. It is interesting 

to note that the traditions of nearly all oriental countries trace their national descent back through fabulous myriads of 

years to a divine ancestry. According to Manetho, as reported by Eusebius (Chronicon, I, 20, pp. 93-107, ed. Mai.), 

the Egyptian tradition was as follows: 

Years. 

Reign of gods, 13,900 

Reign of heroes, 1,255 

Reign of kings, 1,817 

Reign of thirty Memphite kings, 1,790 

Reign of ten Thinite kings, 350 

Reign of manes and heroes, 5,813 

24,925 Thirty dynasties of kings, beginning with Menes: Syncellus 5,040, Armenian version 5,207, Africanus, - - - 

5,385 

Total, 30,310 

Chaldasan traditions, according to the scheme of Berosus, reported by Eusebius (Chronicon, I, 1 and 4, pp. 5,18), were 

as follows: 

Years. Ten kings from Alorus to Xisuthrus reigned, - - - 432,000 Eighty-six kings from Xisuthrus to the Medean 

conquest, 33,080

Eight Medean kings, 224 

Eleven kings (a number regarded doubtful, perhaps should 

be 258years), (?) 48 

Forty-nine Chaldaean kings, 458 

Nine Arabian kings, 245 

Forty-five kings down to Pul, 526 

Total, 466,581 begins at 2637 B.c., with Hoang-ti. The sixth king of this dynasty was Yao, whose 81st year answers to 

2277 B.c.; the eighth was Chun. At 2278 B.c. the monuments begin, with the inscription of Yu. In the Second Dynasty, 

"Hia," Yu the Great was the first king, at 2205 B.c.; Tchung-kang was the fourth, whose fifth year is fixed by an 

eclipse of the sun at 2155 B.c. Then follow the dynasties and kings in succession.* 

According to the conclusion of Prichard, who gave a candid investigation to this subject, "there is a nearly uniform 

consent among the best informed students of Chinese literature favorable to the authenticity of Chinese history as far 

back as twenty-two or twenty-three centuries before the Christian Era."f Legge alone dis- The Chinese are reported to 

possess a scheme represented by the following table (Crawford, Patriarchal Dynasties, pp. 126, 128-130): 

Years. 

Pwang-koo, the first man, 18,000 

Tien-wong, the King of Heaven, 18,000 

Te-wong, the King of the World, 18,000 

Jin-wong, King of Men, 45,000 

Fu-hi [Williams 647J, Kidd, 1,164 

Twenty-five historical dynasties, 4,017 

Total, 104,181 

The ancient Brahmans, as has been aptly observed, made out their primitive chronology by adding a zero to the 

Babylonian dates; for while the latter assign 432,000 years to the first cycle, the Hindoos make it 4,320,000 years.

The Phoenicians, according to Sanchoniathon, as reported by Philo of Byblos, pretended that the learning of Egypt, 

Greece and Judaea was derived from Phoenicia. Similar claims to autochthonous origin, and descent from the remotest 

antiquity, have been put forth by Phrygia, Lydia and other countries. 

* This information was communicated by Father Amiot in 1769, and embodied in Pauthier's Chine. The earliest history 

of China is more recently summarized by Richthofen in his magnificent work on "China," particularly 2tes Absch., 

9tes cap., pp. 365-95. 

t Prichard, Physical History of Mankind, Vol. IV, p. 477. 

sents from such a conclusion.* Neumann recognizes valid Chinese chronology as far back as 2257 b.c.f Remusat 

assures us that we can trust these records as far as the twenty-second century b.c., and that clear traditions carry us 

back four centuries farther,, to 2637 B.c.^: Richthofen thinks it probable the annals of the JTii-kung attain to 2357 B.c. 

§ At a time still more remote a wild and savage race spread over the country, the relics of which still survive, as 

Miaotse (sprouts), in the remote fastnesses of the southern mountains. 

* Legge, Shoo-king, prolegomena, pp. 3-6. 

t Neumann, Coup oVoeil Hist. Nouv. Jour. AsiaL, tome xiv, p. 50. 

% Remusat, Melanges Historiques, tome i, p. 66. 

§ Richthofen, China, p. 277.

Chapter 10 

PreNoachite Races 

HAD the language of the Pentateuch clearly stated the existence of nations which survived the Flood, collateral 

interpretations and current opinions would have adjusted themselves immediately to such an enunciation. I have no 

doubt a similar adjustment would have been effected had the world always known of the existence of nations 

unaffected by the Flood, even though the language of Scripture had been as it is. It does not appear that biblical 

language excludes the existence of such nations; though many passages seem to imply their existence. There is, 

however, some ground to suppose that the compiler of Genesis had no intention to make mention of postdiluvian 

peoples not belonging to the line of the Noachidre, if, indeed, he had actual information of the existence of such 

peoples. At any rate, it is generally understood that the Pentateuch formally restricts itself to the Adamic ancestry of 

Noah and the nations descended from him, among whom its specialty is the Semitic family. In the purview of Genesis, 

"all the world" is the region over which the Semitic people were dispersed— or, in the widest sense, it stretched no 

farther than the tribes of Gomer on the north, Madai on the east, Seba on the south and the posterity of Mizraim on the 

west. With such a purpose, and the silence which such a purpose imposed, the later Jews undoubtedly came to believe 

literally that all the races of men had descended 

from Noah. They fixed upon the Scriptures an interpretation accordant with such a belief, and their interpretation and 

belief have come into our possession. But it is always legitimate to reexamine any matter of opinion and judgment. 

Whenever new light dawns upon any subject, it is our solemn duty to scrutinize the grounds of old opinions, and 

cheerfully to abandon them if not in harmony with new facts, or the inductions logically based on new facts. For such 

reasons I propose to reexamine the old belief respecting the descent of all men from Noah. The invalidity of this belief 

must be shown before we can consistently proceed to the question of the descent of all men from Adam. 

Let us first consider some of the implications of the Sacred Scripture. Abraham, following Strong's chronology, had 

found his way into Egypt 445 years after the Flood. Within that period the Mizraimites had wandered into Africa, 

developed society, arts, literature, religion and a fixed monarchical form of government. Abraham found there a 

Pharaoh on the throne, surrounded by his "princes." Within that period the posterity of Noah had journeyed westward 

to Shinar, and built "a city and a tower"; and the dialects of men had become so divergent, either as cause or 

consequence of a wide dispersion, that different nations no longer understood each other's speech. Within that time the 

other great cities of Mesopotamia —Erech, Accad, Calneh and Ur — had been built; and from Ur, Terah, with 

Abraham and his nephew Lot, went into the land of Canaan. "The Canaanite and the Perizzite" descendants of Ham 

had already spread over the country, and the "cities of the plain" had been built up. Soon afterward, great warlike 

expeditions were on foot. "In the days of Amraphel, king of Shinar, Arioch, king of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer, king of 

Elam, and Tidal, king of nations" confederated together to subjugate the cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboi'm 

and Bela; and a great battle was fought in the vale of Siddim. Had all these nations, these governments and these cities, 

extending from the Persian Gulf to the Nile, come into existence in the space of 445 years ? — or was there, more 

probably, an older stratum of population already dwelling in cities, and already organized into nationalities and 

governments?* Have we any historical record of an increase and dispersion of populations at all comparable? The nine 

mutineers of the ship Bounty, who, with nine Tahitian women, settled, in 1789, on Pitcairn's Island, had increased in 

thirty-six years to seventy persons, and in seventy years to two hundred and nineteen persons. The original stock was, 

in this case, three times as numerous as the family of Noah. At the same rate of increase, the Noachidae would have 

numbered seventythree persons in seventy years. The Parsees fled from their country during the seventh century. Those 

who 

* Mr. R. S. Poole, considering this question, says: "A comparison of all the passages [of Scripture] referring to the 

primitive history of Palestine and Idumaea, shows that there was an earlier population expelled by the Hamite and 

Abrahamite settlers. This population was important in the war of Chedorlaomer; but at the exodus there was but a

emnant of it." (Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, I,743,1st col.) I have been disposed to think the very expression "king 

of nations" signifies that Tidal (Thargal in the Septuagint) belonged outside of the recognized and enumerated peoples 

of biblical history. The use of the word GOIM, nations, denotes as much. It is a plural used especially of "nations other 

than Israel, foreign nations"; often with the "accessory notion of hostile and barbarous." Gesenius admits: "It is 

uncertain where the GOIM are to be sought who joined in the war against Sodom." (Hebrew Lexicon, sub voce.) The 

name Tidal, or Thargal, is, moreover, a Turanian word, signifying "great chief." "The nations over whom he ruled," 

says Lenormant, "were probably nomadic tribes of Scythians or Turanians." {Ancient History of the East, Am. ed , I, 

352.) 

settled in the Caucasus have become almost extinct; those who went to Bombay are said to have prospered; but in 

1,200 years they have increased to only 49,000 souls. Racial and national changes have proceeded, in the ordinary 

history of the world, with the utmost slowness. "So far as history teaches us," says Huxley, "the populations of Europe, 

Asia and Africa were, twenty centuries ago, just what they are now, in their broad features and general distribution." 

Again, "The Xanthochroi and Melanochroi of Great Britain are, speaking broadly, distributed at present as they were 

in the time of Tacitus; and their representatives on the continent of Europe have the same general distribution as at the 

earliest period of which we have any record."* 

Again, we are told in Genesis x, 12, that Nimrod— or the Nimrodites, the immediate descendants of Ham, were 

concerned, in some way, in building famous cities in the land of Shinar. "The beginning of his kingdom was Babel and 

Erech and Accad and Calneh." Is it supposable that Nimrod built these four cities without a preexisting population? 

Asshur, also, a son of Shem, migrated from the land of Shinar northward and built five cities, whereof Calah is said to 

have been "a great city." Did Asshur also build cities without a preexisting population? But perhaps the purport of the 

text signifies that these cities had been built at the date of the account. Now, as the account ends with Peleg, it is 

presumable that the lifetime of Peleg marks the date of the account. But Peleg was the great-greatgrandson of Shem; 

and in another, undoubtedly later, account (chapter xi) we have data which enable us to ascertain that Peleg was born 

101 years after the 

* Huxley, Critiques and Addresses, pp. 156, 172. 

Flood, and died 239 years after the Flood. If, therefore, the ethnological table given in tenth chapter of Genesis was 

compiled by Peleg, or in the lifetime of Peleg, the utmost allowance of time is 239 years for the development of the 

populations of the nine cities "built" by Nimrod and Asshur. To me it seems more probable that Prenoachites were 

found in existence, and that the grandson and the great-grandson of Noah organized them under settled governments. 

Still further, the antediluvian Jabal, son of Lamech and fifth in descent from Cain, "was the father of such as dwell in 

tents and [of such as have] cattle."* "Such as dwelV is a phrase which leads us to inquire, To what time does the 

present tense of the phrase refer? There must have been people dwelling in tents and having cattle at the time of the 

composition of this history. Such as "dwell" in tents and [have] cattle is a phrase implying that the descendants of Jabal 

were living in the time of Moses — if we admit that Moses was the author of the account — or in some postdiluvian 

age, if the account has a post-diluvian origin. This would mean, then, that the posterity of Cain were not destroyed by 

the Deluge; and hence that the Deluge was not "universal." The same line of reasoning applies to Jubal, "the father of 

all such as handle the harp and organ." It equally applies to Tubal Cain, "an instructor of every artificer in brass and 

iron." The descendants of these gifted patriarchs seem to have been in existence after the Flood. It is not admissible, 

then, on biblical grounds, to assume that Noah was the progenitor of all existing peoples. 

This conclusion seems the more probable in view of the non-biblical evidence of a population in Noah's

time, which had survived the Flood. This evidence I will next examine 

We find traces of an antediluvian, Tatar or Turanian population throughout Asia. It is not long since historians and 

ethnologists first noted the monumental and linguistic evidences of an older Hamitic stratum underlying the recognized 

Semitic civilizations of Babylonia and Assyria, and even of Canaan and Phoenicia. Now they inform us that 

unmistakable traces remain of a wide-spread Turanian stratum of people, still older than the first Hamitic settlements. 

Prichard says: "The Allophyllian nations appear to have been spread, in the earliest times, through all the most remote 

regions of the old continent — to the northward, eastward and westward of the Indo-European tribes, whom they seem 

everywhere to have preceded; so that they appear, in comparison with these IndoEuropean colonies, in the light of 

aboriginal or native inhabitants, vanquished, and often banished into remote and inaccessible tracts by more powerful 

invading tribes."* Canon George Rawlinson declares that everywhere Tatar tribes had preceded the spreading 

JSToachidae; and he holds that the primitive language of all Asia was Turanian or Tatar. "A Turanian language," he 

says, "extended from the Caucasus to the Indian Ocean, and from the shores of the Mediterranean to the mouths of the 

Ganges. We might, perhaps, largely extend these limits, and say that the whole eastern hemisphere was originally 

occupied by a race or races whose various dialects possessed the characteristics of the linguistic type in question" 

[Turanian].f Again, he says: "The Aramaeans, Susianians or Elymaeans, the early Babylonians, the 

* Prichard, Natural History of Man, 4th ed., Vol. I, p. 183. t Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. I, p. 525. 

inhabitants of the south coast of Arabia, the original people of the Great Iranic Plateau, and of the Kurdish mountains, 

and the primitive populations of India, can be shown, it is said, to have possessed dialects of this character; while 

probability is strongly in favor of the same general occupation of the whole region by persons speaking the same type 

of language." Rawlinson, it is true, does not distinguish, in all cases, between indications of a Hamitic, and indications 

of a Turanian population, as we now distinguish them. He regards the Turanian as the original Noachite tongue, and 

seems to hold that proper Hamitic and Semitic dialects came into existence by improvement and absorption of the 

Turanian. In his "Table of Races,"* indeed, he makes the "Hamitic or Cushite" and the "Scythic or Tatar," families of 

the "Turanian" race. But this affiliation of the Scyths is not admitted by ethnologists; nor do philologists permit us to 

confound Hamitic and Tatar languages. It is true that the Accadian, or primitive Hamite language of Assyria — called 

Turanian by Oppert — resembles the Finnish in the loose attachment of suffixes for numeral and pro- * Rawlinson, 

Herodotus, Vol. I, p. 531. He seems drawn into this arrangement by a preconceived belief that the Turanians must be 

accommodated among the Noachites. Why the three primary families descended from Noah should be set down as 

"Indo-European," "Semitic" and "Turanian," instead of Indo-European, Semitic and Hamitic, I am unable to 

understand, though I perceive at once how such an arrangement accommodates traditional opinions. In regard to the 

Scythians, it ought to be said that the author, in his third volume, in an essay "On the Ethnography of the European 

Scyths," concludes that "the Scythians were not Mongolians, but members of the Indo-Germanic race. Language, as 

Mr. Grote correctly observes, is the only sure test; and language pronounces unmistakably in favor of the Indo- 

European, and against the Mongol theory." (Herodotus, Vol. III, p. 167.) Compare the fifth chapter of the present 

work. 

nominal purposes. Nevertheless, the verb "forms its definitions chiefly by prefixes, and is thus completely alien to the 

style of the North Asiatic [Turanian] languages."* The attempt to merge together primitive Turanian and Hamitic 

dialects in the interests of a theory of a universal Flood is less sagacious than the recognition of a Turanian element as 

a fact in the primitive history of man. That the Turanian dialect was the language of Noah, and that the Hamitic was 

the same under the influence of culture and civilization, may be correct in a developmental sense; but in view of the 

common conception of linguistic distinctions it is a pure assumption, equaled only by the assumption that the Aryan 

languages grew up in a similar way. The Turanian was a distinct language, spoken by a distinct race; and the trilingual 

inscriptions of oriental monarchs include the Turanian, for the purpose of notifying Turanian neighbors, and probably a 

considerable Turanian constituency, of the exploits of victorious potentates. 

A prehamitic population is recognized by Mr. C. L. Brace,f an author of acumen and erudition, who after stating that

we recognize, in primitive times, four families of languages, the Turanian, the Semitic, the Aryan and the Hamitic, 

says: "The most ancient of these great families is the Turanian. . . . The Turanians were probably the first who figured 

in the ante-historical period. Their emigrations began long before the wanderings of the Aryans and Semites, who, 

wherever they went, always discovered a previous population, apparently Turanian in origin, which they either 

expelled or subdued." The first or "Medean" dynasty (so called), in the annals of 

* J. Oppert, Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1837. 

f Brace, Races of the Old World, pp. 27, 29. 

Babylonia, is regarded by Mr. Brace as a Turanian empire. ''Its Turanian character is derived from the inscriptions, 

which are in Turanian grammar, though with Hamitic vocabulary, indicating a great mixture with Hamitic 

population."* Simultaneously the Chinese empire rose into existence. 

Francois Lenormant, an eminent original authority, affirms the existence of a pronounced Turanian element in the 

earliest populations and languages of the Mesopotamian regions. "To the earliest date that the monuments carry us 

back, we can distinguish, in this very mixed population of Babylonia and Chaldaea, two principal elements, two great 

nations, the Shumir and the Accad, who lived to the north and to the south of the country." The Shumir were Turanian, 

and had their capital at Sumere. The Accad were Cushite, and had their capital southward from the others, at Accad. 

The Sumerites spoke a dialect of the Uralo-Finnish family. Lenormant continues: "The Turanians were one of the first 

races to spread out into the world, before the time of the great Semitic and Arian migrations; and they covered a great 

extent of territory, both in Asia and Europe. They then occupied all that district between the Tigris and the Indus, 

afterward conquered by the Iranians; and they also held the greater part of India [referring to the Dravidians]. When 

the Semites on the one hand, and the Arians on the other, had finished their migrations and were finally established, 

there always remained between them a separating belt of Turanian people, penetrating, like a wedge, as far as the 

Persian Gulf, and occupying the mountains between Persia and the Tigro-Euphrates basin." Media was populated 

partly by a Turanian race, which also 

* Compare Rawliuson, Ancient Monarchies, I, p. 69. 

formed "a notable portion of the population of Susiana. . . . The primitive center whence all the Turanian people had 

spread into the world was toward the east of Lake Aral. There, from very remote antiquity, they had possessed a 

peculiar civilization, characterized by gross Sabeism. . . . This strange and incomplete civilization exercised over a 

great part of Asia an absolute preponderance, lasting, according to the historian Justin, 1500 years. All the Turanians 

of Asia carried this civilization with them into the countries they colonized." The language of the Median Turanians, 

according to Westergaard, was decidedly Turkish in its affinities; the Chaldaean Turanian was Ural-Finnish; the 

Susianian was a connecting link between the latter and the Dravidian. "The Turanians brought to Babylon and Assyria 

that singular system of writing called cuneiform." The nature of the symbols employed in this writing "apparently 

points, as the place where that writing was invented, to a region very different from Chaldma, a more northern region, 

whose fauna and flora were markedly different, where, for example, neither the lion nor any other large feline 

carnivora, were known, and where there were no palm-trees." * 

One can hardly understand how Lenormant, after enunciating such conclusions, can avoid the ulterior conclusion, that 

the Turanians were prenoachites. He traces them, however, to Magog of the Japhetic family,. — leaving, nevertheless, 

the Chinese to stand as descendants of non-noachite antediluvians, and thus disrupting a race which, at least in Asia, is 

one, physically and linguistically, to satisfy the demands of a theory of diluvial universality, which, in spite of this 

expedient, he sets aside at last. Now, when we admit, for

* F. Lenormant, Ancient History of the East, Am. ed., I, pp. 341 

347. 

once, the prenoachite origin of all Mongoloids, a most sensible relief is felt. It is no longer necessary to confound 

Turanians and Gomerians; it is no longer necessary to resist the evidence of the Japhetic descent of the Scythians, a 

branch of the Gomerians, or suppose that a Japhetic twig, in being named Turanian, becomes the comprehensive type 

of both Semitic and Hamitic peoples — Japhetic, Turanian, Hamitic and Semitic, all at once! It is no longer necessary 

to assume that the descendants of Gomer spread themselves all over Asia and Europe, while the Hamites and Semites, 

and the other Japhetites, were holding back, to give this particular tribe of Japhet time to preempt the world, and 

become more populous than all the other sixty or more Genesiacal sons and grandsons of Noah.* It is no longer 

necessary to sunder into two widely separated stocks the Mongoloid nations of Asia, whom all ethnologists have found 

united, and whose profound affinity is disclosed by all linguistic researches. It is no longer necessary to confound with 

Turanians and Japhetites, and finally Hamites and Semites, the Dravidians, whom ethnology, following linguistics, has 

so decisively separated. All the facts disclosed by AssyroBabylonian and Persepolitan researches are much more 

readily coordinated with the theory of prenoachites, and even of Preadamites, than with the old and distorted, and 

unbiblical, theory of the descent of all the 

* It is the opinion of some that the name Scythian, a strictly Japhetic word, was extended from the Japhetic Scythians 

to similar nomadic Turanian hordes in Asia. This idea receives a quasi-recognition by Lenormant in his second volume 

(pp. 126-130). This is not unlikely; but what, in this case, becomes of the theory that these very Asiatic Turanians are 

to be accounted for by ascribing them to a Gomerian ancestry? If they are Gomerians they are not Turanians; if they 

are Turanians, they are not Gomerians — and then, what are they, in the Noachic ethnography? 

races from Noah. I confidently leave the presumption with the reader. The argument becomes still stronger when we 

learn that even the Asiatic Mongoloids — Turanians and Chinese alike — were not a primordial population. 

The Chinese, Mongoloids as they are, have succeeded to a primitive population considerably inferior to them in racial 

characteristics, as they manifestly were in civilization. The relics of the aboriginal population still lead a half savage 

life in some of the mountainous districts of China. 

The Amos, now confined chiefly to the island of Yeso, are regarded as the remnants of a primitive people to whom the 

Coreans and Japanese have succeeded.* Related to them, however, are the inhabitants of southern Saghalien, and the 

Kurile islands, and the Giliaks on the lower Amoor. The Ainos, while in many respects resembling the Japanese, are 

distinguished by a luxuriant beard, bushy and curly hair of the head, and a general hirsuteness of the body.f (See fig. 

7.) Throughout the region of the northern Asiatics we find similar remnants of primeval populations possessing distinct 

features and dialects, 

* Prof. E. S. Morse thinks he finds in some shell-heaps nearTokio (in Omori), Japan, pottery which was not made by 

Ai'nos; and he regards it as evidence of a race even older than the Ai'nos. (Morse, "Traces of Early Men in Japan," 

Popular Science Monthly, January, 1879, p. 257.) 

t Blakiston," Journey in Yezo," in Journal oftheRoyal Geographical Society, Vol. XLII, p. 80; A. S. Bickmore, in 

Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, December 4, 1867, March 4, 1868; American Journal of Science and 

Arts, II, Vol. XLV, p. 353-77. and authorities there cited; Brace, Races of the OldWorld, p. 160. The existence of a 

general hairiness of the entire body has been disputed. See Lieut. Habersham's account, in Nott and Qliddon's 

Indigenous Races of the Earth, pp. xii, 620, 621. Bickmore insists that the Ai'nos are clearly Aryan, and this is the

view of Dr. Pickering. 

though in both giving evidence of their substantial identity with the Mongoloid or Turanian race. Of this class of 

residual populations I believe all those whose languages stand apart from other prevailing Mongoloid types may be 

regarded as examples. They are mere outliers of an ancient population, which, like the islets that mark the place of a 

wasted continent, remain as outstanding testimonies of its former existence. Such detached tribes are the Ostiaks of the 

Yenesei (not of the Obi), who, though speaking six peculiar dialects, are reduced to one thousand individuals; and the 

Yukagiri, who have so recently become extinct from certain islands of New Siberia that vestiges of them still remain. 

From many and various indications, therefore, it appears that the greater part of the continent of Asia has been 

overspread by a primitive Mongolian race, of which all the historical, and now dominant, races — not less the Chinese 

and Japanese than the Noachites— are the successors. In the peninsula of India, however, the indigenous race was not 

Mongoloid. I have recalled the facts,* now notorious, establishing the presence of an indigenous non-mongoloid 

people in Hindustan, whom the encroaching Noachites of the Aryan family gradually displaced or absorbed. Though 

this race, physically, has almost disappeared, except so far as it forms a visible constituent in the modern Hindu race, 

the imperishable fragments of its language have survived in great abundance. The Dravida were a brown race, like the 

Mongoloids, and it is a fact of profound interest that their language also presented such Turanian resemblance that 

some philologists have been disposed to regard it a sister of the primitive 

* In chapter vi. 

Mongoloid.* These facts carry our thoughts back to a time when the primitive Mongoloids and primitive Dravida were 

co-possessors of the Asiatic continent, speaking cognate dialects of a parent tongue, which had been dually 

transformed, with the disappearance of the premongoloid type of humanity which was superseded by the brown races 

of ancient and modern times. 

Evidences exist of a prehamitic population in the valley of the Nile. The Egyptian language is neither properly Hamitic 

nor Semitic. It is regarded by some philologists as representing the transition from Turanian to Semitic. 

Turning our attention to the European continent, we discover that every Asiatic immigration of which we possess any 

knowledge encountered populations already in possession of the soil. 

The ancient poets and historians have left us numerous accounts of a barbarous people who inhabited Europe before 

the advent of representatives of Noachites, or the Mediterranean race. They were described as dwelling in caverns, and 

having no knowledge of the metals, nor of the arts of weaving, plowing and navigation. They were unacquainted with 

domestic animals, save the sheep and the goat. They belonged to an unfamiliar race, and had no knowledge of the gods 

or the religion of their Asiatic invaders. Êschylus, in the "Prometheus Bound,"+ describes Prometheus as first 

introducing the plow and beasts of burden. Prometheus was represented as the ancestor of the Greeks. Êschylus wrote 

470 B.c. Homer, \ who 

* Whitney, Language and the Study of Language, p. 327, where, however, this approximation is condemned. 

t Êschylus, Prometheus Bound, vers. 462-464. t Homer, Odyssey, ix, vers. 113-14. 

wrote at an earlier date, tells us that in the time of Ulysses (1250 b.c.), men were still in possession of some parts of 

Europe who lived in caverns among the mountains. They did not labor; they did not even cultivate the soil.* They

possessed goats and herds, but no horses.f They were ignorant of navigation.^; They were known as Cyclopes — the 

children of Heaven and Earth, says Hesiod,§ while the Greeks were descended from Prometheus, the son of Japetus 

(Japheth), who was also the offspring of Heaven and Earth. Thus the Greeks and Cyclopes had no human ancestor in 

common. Their divergence is further shown by the ignorance which Polyphemus avows of the Greek Zeus and the 

other all-powerful gods. || They were ignorant even of the name of Zeus, though among the ancestors of the Greeks 

that name was honored from the Ganges to the Euxine. The Cyclopes or cave-dwellers, therefore, were not Greeks nor 

IndoEuropeans. That they were neither Semites nor Hamites is justly inferred from the fact that the migrationcourses 

of these families, according to all admissions, did not carry them, in primitive times, across the European boundary.** 

According to Thucydides, the Cyclopes preceded the Sicanes in Sicily. The Sicanes were of the Iberian stock, and are 

believed to have arrived in Sicily about 2000 B.c. Who the Iberians were is still a matter of some doubt. They did not 

belong, apparently, to the Mediterranean race; but this is a subject which I shall consider hereafter (chapter xxiii). 

Aristotle also speaks of the Cyclopes, and, citing from Homer, tells 

us that each father of a family ruled over the women and children of his household.* The same ideas are set forth more 

at length by Plato, f Pausanias, who wrote in the first half of the second century after Christ, says that Pelasgos — a 

personification of Pelasgians (as Hellen, of the Hellenes) — found the Cyclopes in the Peloponnesus; that they neither 

built houses nor wore clothing; that they subsisted on leaves and herbs and roots; and that Pelasgos taught them to 

construct cabins, and to clothe themselves with the skins of the wild boar.^ Diodorus Siculus, who wrote in the first 

century before our era, tells us that the most ancient inhabitants of Crete, also, were dwellers in caverns, and destitute 

of all the arts, until the Pelasgic Curetes taught them the first elements of civilization.§ According to Virgil, the 

population of cave-dwellers also spread over Italy**—autochthonous fauns and nymphs — a race of men born from 

the hard trunks of the oak, living without laws or civilization. Pausaniasff informs us that a similar people inhabited 

Sardinia. Diodorus Siculus^ states that the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands still dwelt in caverns in the first century 

before our era, and wore no clothing during the summer. Strabo, a little later, names four Sardinian tribes who had not 

yet learned to build cabins. 

As to the ethnic affinities of these prenoachite populations of Europe, I think there are good reasons for 

* Aristotle, Politico, lib. i, ch. 1, ed. Didot, t, I, p. 483. t Plato, Leges, ed. Didot-Sclmeider, t. II, p. 298-301. X 

Pausanias, Description of Greece, lib. viii, ch. 1, §§2, 5, 6, ed. Didot-Dindorf, p. 364-5. 

§ Diod. Sic, lib. v, ch. lxv, ed. Didot-Muller, t. I, p. 294-5. 

** Virgil, JEneid, viii, 314-318. 

tt Pausanias, lib. x, ch. xvii, §2, ed. Didot-Dindorf, t. I, p. 512. 

jt Diod. Sic, lib. v, ch. xvii, §§ 1,3, ed. Didot-Muller; 1.1, pp. 263-4. 

regarding them as near relatives of the Asiatic Mongoloids. Several historical allusions seem to sustain the opinion that 

they belonged to the Finnish family. In the time of Tacitus,— about A.d. 100, — the Finns of Scandinavia and the 

north of modern Russia still supported themselves by the chase, and were ignorant of the use of metals, and pointed

their arrows with bone. 

They had no horses; they built no houses; they wove no cloth. They did not, indeed, dwell in caverns, but erected a sort 

of hurdles or rude shelters for protection against rain and snow.* In our own times, the Finns are driven into still 

narrower limits by the continued encroachments of the Indo-Europeans; but according to Grimm,f linguistic affinities 

justify us in regarding the Finns as the modern remnants of the Cyclopean population which spread over Europe before 

the advent of the Pelasgians and Iberians, in the southeast and southwest of the continent, about 2000 years before the 

Christian era. 

Rawlinson says the Kelts "found the central and western countries of Europe either without inhabitants, or else very 

thinly peopled by a Tatar race.^: This race, where it existed, everywhere yielded to them, and was gradually absorbed, 

or else driven toward the north, where it is found, at the present day, in the persons of the Finns, Esths and Lapps."§ 

He adds: "It is now generally believed that there is a large Tatar admixture in most Keltic races, in consequence 

* Tacitus, Germania, ch. xlvi. 

t Grimm, Geschickte der Deutschen Sprache, 3d ed., p. 121. Also, Kleinere Schriften, t. II, p. 80. 

| While the Kelts in central and northern Gaul were confronted by an indigenous Tatar population, they were opposed 

in the south by the Pelasgic Illyrians. See chapter v. 

§ Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. III, p. 155. 

of this absorption." The Tatar indigenes, he says, may also have been, in part, driven westward. "The mysterious 

Cynetians* who dwelt west of the Kelts, may have been a remnant of the primitive Tatar occupants. So, too, may have 

been the Iberians of the Spanish peninsula." 

"In the Spanish peninsula," says Niebuhr, "it is not quite certain whether, on their arrival, they [the Kelts] found 

Iberians or not; but if not, these latter must have shortly crossed over from the African main; and it was in consequence 

of the gradual pressure exerted by this people upon the Kelts in Spain, that the further migrations of the Keltic tribes 

took place." f 

Now, it is generally held that the Basques are a remnant of the ancient Iberes. They number about half a million. They 

speak a language known as Euscara, and dwell in the northeast provinces of Spain, and a small district in the 

southwest of France. "The old geographers," says Peschel, "called them Iberians; they then peopled the whole of Spain 

and the southwest of France, but were early driven toward the west and south by the Kelts, and intermixing with them, 

in the district of the present Catalonian dialect, constituted the Keltiberians. . . . According to Paul Broca, their 

language stands quite alone, or has mere analogies with the American type. ... Of all Europeans, we must provisionally 

hold the Basques to be the oldest inhabitants of our quarter of the world.'" \ 

The Euscara "has some common traits with the Magyar, Osmanli and other dialects of the Altai family; as, for instance, 

with the Finnic on the old con 

* Herodotus, Bk. II, ch. xxxiii, and IV, xlix.

t Niebuhr, Roman History, Vol. II, p. 520. 

% Peschel, Races of Men, p. 501. 

tinent, as well as the Algonkin Lenape language and some others in America. . . . For this reason the Bascongadas 

[Basques] are classed by some with the remains of the Finnish stem of Europe, in the Ubic family of nations; by 

others, in that of the Allophyle* race. . . . The settlements of Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians i Noaehites] on the 

coasts of the Mediterranean sea are of much later date" than the conflict of the Kelts and Iberians.+ 

"Before this epoch" [1400 b.c.], says Le Hon, "history establishes the existence on the soil of Spain of the great nation 

of Iberians, which is affiliated in no respect with the Indo-European race, neither by its physical type nor by its 

language." £ As Hamites and Semites never invaded western Europe, in these early times, the Iberians, according to Le 

Hon, were not Noaehites. Similarly, M. Maspero advances the opinion that the Basques, the descendants of the 

Iberians, are Turanians, of the same race as the Finns. § 

It appears, therefore, to be generally agreed that the Basques are a remnant of the ancient Iberians, and that they 

possess no ethnic affinities with the Noaehites traced from their Asiatic center; but do indicate physical and linguistic 

relations with the type of Mongoloids. History, tradition, linguistics and ethnology conspire to fortify the conclusion 

that in prehistoric times all Europe was overspread by the Mongoloid race, of which remnants have survived to our 

times, in the persons of the Basques, Finns, Esths, Lapps, and some smaller tribes. 

*The Allophyle type of Quatrefages embraces the Esthonians, the Caucasians (in the restricted sense) and the ATnos. 

The term was introduced by Prichard. 

tNew American Cyclopcedia, art. "Basques," p. 708. 

X Le Hon, L'Homme Fossile en Europe, p. 259. See also p. 153. 

§ Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de VOrient, p. 135. 

Some confirmation of this conclusion comes from the study of human skulls of the prehistoric period. The skulls from 

the cavern of Frontal, in Belgium, are markedly brachycephalic,* and by the flattening of the occiput remind one 

vividly of the Mongoloid skulls from American "mounds." "It is impossible to confound them," says Pruner Bey, "with 

the skulls of the Aryan race, where the contours are all oval. The angular contours of the crania found at Furfooz 

(Frontal), and the lozenge-shaped figure of the face, class them clearly among the Turanian or Mongol races,— a 

conclusion confirmed by the learned curator of the Anthropological Society [of London], Mr. Carter Blake. The 

eminent president of the Anthropological Society of France, seeking to ascertain to what branch of the great Turanian 

race the ancient people of Furfooz might be referred, assigns them to the Ligurianf or Iberian type, which still exists in 

the north of Italy and in the Pyrenees, and which history seems to indicate as the most ancient inhabitants of the 

countries of which it has preserved the memory. The analogy between the crania of Furfooz and those of this people is 

such that it seems impossible to contest the conclusion which M. Pruner Bey has so brilliantly established."^: The 

skulls found at Solutre have also been studied by Pruner Bey, and decided to belong to a race which he designates a 

"primitive mongoloid race," which is still represented by the Iberians, or so-called Ligurians, of the Gulf of Genoa, in 

the Pyrenees, and in arctic America. 

*These terms will be found explained in the next chapter, where more precise data will also be given.

tThe Ligurians are not generally regarded as co-racial with Iberians. They were probably Aryans. See chapter iii. 

X Le Hon, L'Homme Fossih, pp, 83, 84 

Many similar opinions might be cited tending to establish the conclusion, on palreontological grounds, that a 

brachycephalic and Mongoloid race was generally distributed throughout western Europe before the advent of Hamitic 

or Aryan immigrants. 

Mingled with these, however, were people possessing dolichocephalic skulls. The Cro-Magnon skulls are thus 

characterized by Pruner Bey: "Mongoloid, dolichocephal, and having a large brain." Similar is the skull of the 

Mentone skeleton. The crania of Engis, Engisheim, Neanderthal and Olmo are of the same type. The idea has been 

advanced that "anteriorly to the brachycephalic Mongoloid race there must have existed in Europe a singular race 

possessing a dolichocephalic cranium." * This peculiar race may explain the occurrence of dolichocephalism among 

the ruling brachycephals of the age of Polished Stone. Dolichocephalism, as a character of inferior races, is a fact quite 

in accordance with the theory of progressive improvement. It should be mentioned, too, that modern Mongoloids, in 

their different families, present all degrees of dolichocephalism and brachycephalism; so that the commingling of both 

types, in remote prehistoric times, is quite compatible with the assumption that one Mongoloid race spread over all 

Europe. The point, however, which I desire here to establish is the prevalence of a non-Aryan and non-Hamitic type 

throughout Europe in the period preceding the accession of the Noachite tribes of Asia. 

*Le Hon, VHomme Fossile, p. 57. See also Lenormant, Les Premieres Civilisations, Vol. I, p. 36. See the subject 

splendidly illustrated by A. de Quatref'ages and Ernest Hamy, in Crania Ethnica, 4to, Paris, 1873. These authors claim 

to have shown the existence of three different races in the human fauna of the Quaternary Period. 

I think it appears from the foregoing citations that the general opinion among ethnologists sustains the doctrine of a 

wide-spread Mongoloid population over the continents of Asia and Europe, save where the Dravidians held possession 

of the peninsula of Hindustan and neighboring regions. It appears that this race has been recognized in the prehistoric 

people of Europe, in the ancient Iberians, and in the modern Basques, Finns, Lapps and Esths, as well as in sundry 

remnants of primitive peoples of the Asiatic countries still held by Mongoloids. It appears that this population was 

spread over the two continents at a date much earlier than that commonly assigned to the Deluge, and that the posterity 

of Noah, in their dispersion over Europe and Asia, were everywhere confronted by races of men already in possession 

of the earth. 

What is the meaning of these facts? It is impossible to harmonize them with the theory that all mankind are descended 

from Noah. The descendants of Noah found them in every new country, and could give no account of their origin. 

They were in existence at an epoch too remote to allow the suggestion of a postdiluvian origin. They belonged to a 

different race from the posterity of Noah. 

We are confirmed by the import of the facts of contemporaneous history. They force upon us the inference of different 

epochs for the Mongoloid and the Mediterranean races. They are two distinct types of mankind. They are as distinct 

physically and psychically as they are linguistically. They manifest socially a total repugnance to each other. We do 

not discover the least tendency to coalesce. Their racial distinctness has been equally great from the remotest historical 

times; and it is impossible to affirm from observation that the two races are even in progress of divergence. 

Under these circumstances, it is incredible that their divergence commenced but four thousand years ago. Again, the 

very populousness of the Mongoloids argues the high antiquity of their race. They number fortyfour per cent, of the

whole population of the world. Four hundred years ago they were probably twice as numerous as all the Hamites, 

Semites and Aryans then in existence. They have spread over vastly more territory than the Mediterranean race, and 

have encountered the vicissitudes of even a greater range of climates,— a contrast all the more apparent if we extend 

the comparison back a few centuries. In the Old World they brave the rigors of the shores of the Arctic Sea, quite 

secure from the encroachments of the White race. They luxuriate over tropical peninsulas and the islands of the 

Pacific. In America they begin upon the desolate coasts of the Frozen Ocean, and stretch through every degree of 

latitude, across the equator, and onward to the sleety and rock-bound retreat of Terra del Fuego. They hold undisputed 

possession of Greenland. They have infused their blood into a third of the populations of Europe. Now, I hold that 

these facts of daily observation strongly remind us of the comparatively high antiquity of this race. In my own mind, 

the only question remaining is, whether they are not descendants of Preadamites as well as of prenoachites. But this 

question I do not hasten to press. I am satisfied to point out the prenoachian origin of the two brown races. 

As a corollary of this conclusion, the deluge of Noah was not universal, and did not destroy all human beings, but only 

all the people which fell within the the purview of Semitic history and tradition,— perhaps the history and tradition of 

the White race. No anxiety should be occasioned, therefore, if the history of the Brown races,— that of the Chinese, 

for example,—is found to run back over a period more remote than the accepted epoch of the Deluge. Finally, it may 

be added, the local nature of the Deluge is proved not only by the existence of prenoachite races, but by a number of 

other considerations, which have of themselves determined the belief of most persons who feel free to cut loose from 

traditional opinions. 

It seems almost superfluous to note that geology supplies no evidence of the universality of the deluge of Noah. 

Neither the fossiliferous strata, inclosing relics of the sea in the highest hills,— the proof to Scilla, Woodward and 

Burnet of the "universal deluge,"— nor even the bones of man discovered in the caverns of Europe — to Buckland, 

the "Reliquiae Diluvianas,"—are now imagined by science to have any connection with the deluge recorded in 

Genesis. That local deluges have occurred, of such magnitude as to serve as a basis for such primitive accounts as we 

find in the annals of the Babylonians, Hebrews and Greeks, geology renders eminently probable; and thus confirms, 

substantially, one of the most extraordinary narratives of the Bible.

Chapter 11 

Race Distinctions 

THAT the Brown races constituted wide-spread populations in Asia and Europe at the time of the dispersion of the 

posterity of Noah, seems to be a conclusion established beyond reasonable cavil. I anticipate that the judgment of 

anthropologists will yet pronounce them Preadamites. The four Black races must be regarded as prenoachites, on the 

strength of all the evidence which concerns the epoch of the Brown races, together with the added evidence which I 

shall offer that they are even descended from Preadamites. 

When we contemplate the Black races in their general expression, they appear to be strongly isolated from the rest of 

mankind. In their anatomical, physiological and psychic characteristics, we can barely say that a deep-laid basis of 

human sympathy and likeness exists between them and us; but this is so covered up by the more obtrusive details of 

their being and life, that the first impression remains ineradicable, that these are creatures which are practically strange 

to our tastes, our modes of thought and our very natures. I shall claim for these races all the characteristics, rights and 

responsibilities which pertain to humanity; but I will not affect to ignore the ethnic chasm which splits them from the 

mass of Noachite humanity. Withdrawn in their color, features and relative intelligence, they are similarly withdrawn 

in their geographical positions. Shut up for countless ages within the bosoms of vast and impenetrable continents, it 

seems as if Nature, conscious of their irremediable estrangement, had contented herself to herd them in regions where 

they would never mingle in the stir and strife of social and national struggles. When we consider what mankind has 

achieved, these humble races never enter our thoughts. They have written no history; they have achieved no results for 

history to record. Their thousands of years outlived are silent, and dark and blank; not an echo of a former generation 

comes down to our apprehension. If we learn aught of their past, it is through the studies of the White race. If we 

unravel the mystery of their migrations, their affinities, or their origin, it is by studying their zoological characters and 

their fossil remains, as we investigate the natural history of the horse or the pig. For all which they have achieved, this 

planet would have remained in the wildness and ruggedness of Nature. All which they have accomplished would have 

left our continents in the condition in which they were the home of the Brontotherium, the Sivatherium or Coryphodon 

of middle and earlier Tertiary time. The breach which separates brutishness, indolence, inertia and stupidity from the 

indomitable energy, the flashing intellect, and the heaven-reaching aspirations which have made our planet the abode 

of civilization, art and science, is a breach which reaches back more than a few centuries, more than a few generations, 

and must find its origin deep in the ages, and in the early divarication of courses of events which have emerged in our 

own times. In short, these races were Preadamic* 

* The following is Theodore Parker's estimate of the relative importance of the Caucasian race: "The Caucasian differs 

from all other races: he is humane, he is civilized, and progresses. He conquers with his head as well as with his hand. 

It is intellect, after all, that 

I. ADAM A WHITE MAN. 

I have assumed that the person who has been named Adam was a real representative of the White race. It is true that 

nearly every nation conceives of the first man as a representative of its own race. Reputable authorities have contended 

that Adam was not a white man. Eusebius de Salles represented him as red; Prichard believed him black. There is, 

indeed, a legend in existence, which has obtained wide-spread currency, according to which the first man was of dark 

or black complexion. If, as I am about to argue, some Black race first represented humanity upon the earth, there is 

reason for saying the first man was black. Adam, then, in the sense of "the first man," was a black Adam. There is 

even said to be a tablet in the British Museum, brought by the late George Smith, on which is an inscription which 

lends strange countenance to the legend of the black Adam. It is the inscription, marked "K 3364," containing an 

account of the creation of man by the god Mir-Ku (noble crown). "To fear them [the gods] he made man; the breath of

life was in him. May he [the god Mir-Ku] be established, and may his will not fail in the mouth 

conquers, not the strength of a man's arm. The Caucasian has been often master of the other races — never their slave. 

He has carried his religion to other races, but never taken theirs. In history, all religions are of Caucasian origin. All the 

great limited forms of monarchies are Caucasian. Republics are Caucasian. All the great sciences are of Caucasian 

origin; all inventions are Caucasian; literature and romance come from the same stock; all the great poets are of 

Caucasian origin,— Moses, Luther, Jesus Christ, Zoroaster, Buddha, Pythagoras were Caucasian No other race can 

bring up to memory such celebrated names as the Caucasian race. The Chinese philosopher Confucius is an exception 

to the rule. To the Caucasian belong the Arabian, Persian, Hebrew, Egyptian; and all the European nations are 

descendants of the Caucasian race." 

of the dark races which his hand has made." When this dark man had sinned, the god Hea's liver was angry, and the 

father Elu pronounced man's curse: "Wisdom and knowledge hostilely may they injure him . . . may he be conquered . 

. . his land, may it bring forth and he not touch it . . . his desire shall be cut off, and his will answered . . . the opening 

of his mouth no god shall take notice of . . . his back shall be broken and not healed ... at his urgent trouble no god 

shall receive him." * 

I shall not offer conjectures as to the meaning of this. It seems to imply that the first race was "dark"; but this could 

easily be without Negro blood. And if the allusion is to the Negro race, the curse may easily have been written after 

that race developed its sad aptitude for slavery. Very probably, however, the allusion is to the first man of the 

Babylonian race. The writer, cognizant of the affinity between Babylonians and Hebrews, may refer to the same 

personage as the author of Genesis in speaking of the "first man." The Babylonian curse, indeed, seems little more than 

the echo of that pronounced against the Hebrew Adam. (See note, page 475.) 

The Adam with whom we are concerned is the biblical Adam. What was his ethnic status? Let us first see what an 

examination of the text may reveal. 

Genesis I, 26: "And Elohim said, let us make ADAM in our image." 

Verse 27: "So Elohim created the ADaM." 

Genesis II, 5: "And [there was] not ADaM to till the ADaMaH." 

Verse 7: "And Jehovah Elohim formed the ADaM of the dust of the ADaMaH ..." 

* This information is from a letter of Moncure D. Conway, to the Cincinnati Commercial, Oct. 1878. 

Verse 8: "And there [in Eden] he put the ADaM whom he had formed." 

Verse 9: "And out of the ADaMaH made Jehovah Elohim to grow every tree ..." 

Verse 19: "And out of the ADaMaH Jehovah Elohim formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air, and 

brought them to the ADaM to see what he would call them; and whatever the ADaM called every living creature, that 

was the name thereof."

Verse 20: ''And the ADaM gave names to all cattle. . . . But for ADaM there was not found a help-meet for him." 

Verse 21: "And Jehovah Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the ADaM . . ." 

Verse 22: "And the rib, which Jehovah Elohim had taken from the ADaM, made he IShaH and brought her to the 

ADaM." 

Verse 23: "And the ADaM said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called IShaH, 

because she was taken out of ISh." 

Verse 24: "Therefore shall ISh leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto his IShaH (IShTO)." 

From these passages, among others, we understand that "man" in general, or a "male" being, is expressed by ISh; and a 

"woman" in general, or a "female" being, by IShaH. The word ADaM, therefore, signifies, in this connection, some 

particular man; and though used as a common substantive, with article prefixed, it has the force of a proper name. As 

such our version renders it for the first time in Genesis ii, 19. 

In the next place, the radical letters of ADaM are found in ADaMaH, something out of which vegetation was made to 

germinate,—rendered, "ground" in our version. There is some common conception, therefore, in ADaM and 

ADaMaH; what is it \ Turning toGesenius we find the following: "AD6M and ADOM, red, ruddy, e.g., of a garment 

sprinkled with blood, Isaiah lxiii, 2; of ruddy cheeks, Canticles v, 10; of a chestnut or bay-colored horse, Zechariah i, 

8, vi, 2; of a red heifer, Numbers xix, 2; of the reddish color of lentils, Genesis xxv, 20." Next, we have "ADaMaH, 

earth; so called from its reddish color." Finally, "ADaM, a man, a human being, male or female, pp. red, ruddy, as it 

would seem. The Arabs distinguish two races of men: one red, ruddy, which we call white; the other black." 

Now, it appears that the common conception in ADaM and ADaMaH is redness or ruddiness of color. I think we may 

fairly presume, on biblical as well as anthropological grounds, that Adam was strongly colored, but not black. We have 

shown already that his Hamite posterity was ruddy; here is the old record which also declares that Adam was ruddy. 

This tint is found only in the Mediterranean race. The unmixed black races do not possess ruddy complexions. The 

ruddiness of Adam was transmitted to "sunburnt" Kham, while others of his posterity had acquired a complexion 

characteristically white. 

A further conception common to ADaM and ADaMaH is the essentially earthy constitution of the first man. He was 

formed "of the dust of the ADaMaH"; and, accordingly, after his transgression he was reminded of his origin: "Dust 

thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return." 

II. RACIAL DISTINCTIONS. 

The Adam with whom we have to deal was, therefore, the ruddy-complexioned progenitor of the race and nations 

whose history falls within the purview of the Bible. He was the progenitor of the Mediterranean race in its Blonde and 

Brunette and Sun-burnt subdivisions, and of other peoples descended from Seth or Cain, or other sons, who may have 

constituted other races,— possibly (not probably) the yellow and reddish and swarthy tribes of the Mongoloids and 

Dravidians; or still other types of ruddy complexion, who have been displaced from existence before our times.

We must now consider how divergent f rom this representative of the Mediterranean race are the men of those races 

which I have designated Black. With the comparisons of the White and Black races I shall connect the Mongoloids, for 

the sake of throwing additional light on the comparisons, and because, in briefly characterizing the races (in chapter vi) 

I avoided all statistical details. 

1. Anatomical Comparisons. These take the first rank in importance; and the head is the capital structure in affording 

significant and trustworthy results. Of all measurements of the head, the capacity of the cranium is shown by 

observation to be most intimately connected with racial character. In the following tables I have gathered together the 

results of a large number of measurements. 

CRANIAL CAPACITIES. I. NOACHITES. 

Men. Women. Average. Cubic Cent. Cubic Cent. Cubic Cent. Autnorit y 

[ 1,576 1,395 1,485 Broca. 

38 Europeans, 

1,534 Morton. 

61 Chinese and Mongols, mean capa- j 1,441 city, ... . 

187 Mongoloids, mean capacity,

III. NEGROES. 

85 Negroes,W. Africa, 1,430 1,251 

79 Negroes of Africa, 

12 Dahoman Negroes, 

176 Negroes, mean capacity, 

IV. AUSTRALIANS. 

18 Australians, 1,347 1,181 15 Australians, 

1,345 Broca. 1,364 Morton. 1,452 Davis. ( 1,387 (1,360 * 

1,264 Broca. 1,295 Davis. ( 1,279 1 1,276 * 

We perceive from these tables that the cranial capacity of the Negroes exceeds that of the Australians 84 cubic 

centimeters, or 6.6 per cent. That of the 

* These means are obtained by giving relative weight to the different numbers of crania of the different classes. The 

reader will at once understand that the mean capacity of 608 European skulls, of which 570 average 1,485, and 38 

average 1,534, will not be half the sum of 1,485 and 1,534, since there were over 14 times as many measuring 1,485 as 

there were measuring 1,534. 

33 Australians, mean capacity, 

Asiatic Mongoloids exceeds that of the Australians 166 cubic centimeters, or 12.9 per cent. That of the White race 

exceeds that of the Australians 210 cubic centimeters, or 16.5 per cent. The White race surpasses the Negro 126 cubic 

centimeters, or 9.3 per cent. The following are some recent mean determinations of cranial capacity reported by Prof. 

W. H. Flower:* 

Eskimo, - 1,546 f 

English, of low 

grade, - - 1,542 

Guanches, - - 1,498

Japanese, - 1,486 

Chinese, - - 1,424 

Italians, - - 1,475 

Ancient Egyptians, 1,464 

Flower's measurements aged as follows: 

Modern Noachites, 1,508 

Ancient Hamitic 

Noachites, - 1,481 

Mongoloids, - 1,455 

True Polynesians, 1,454 

Negroes, various, 1,377 

Kaffirs, - - 1,348 

Hindoos, - - 1,306 

Australians, - 1,283 

Andainanese, - 1,220 

Veddahs, - (not stated) 

may be grouped and aver 

Negroes, - - 1,362 

Papuans, - - 1,337 

Australians, - 1,283

Here, it will be seen, the racial means are slightly higher without changing their relative positions. 

Another cranial measurement in high esteem among anthropologists is the proportion between the length and breadth 

of the skull. The length is measured antero-posteriorly, and the breadth from side to side. The ratio of these two 

measurements is expressed in 

* Flower, in Nature, 29th of August, 1878, p. 481,— a paper read before the British Association. 

t This result presents a remarkable divergence from Bessels' determinations quoted above. 

percentage of length; that is, the length of any skull being represented by 100, the "cephalic index" is the portion of 

this 100 covered by the breadth. Skulls which have a cephalic index between 74 and 78 are said to be mesocephalic, 

because this is about the average of mankind. If the index is above 78, they are said to be brachycephalic; if below 74, 

they are dolichocephalic. It will be noted that though brachycephalic and dolichocephalic signify "short-headed" and 

"longheaded," they refer only to the width in relation to the length. Hence a dolichocephalic cranium may be actually 

shorter than a brachycephalic cranium. A certain relative width of skull appears to be connected with energy, force and 

executive ability. It is needed to give 

Fig. 16. Mesencephalic Crani- effect the other capabilities um. (Mediterranean.) of the individual or the race. 

CEPHALIC INDEX. I. NOACHITES. 

31 Irish, 75

39 English, 77 

384 Parisians, from 12th to 19th century, - 79.45 

40 Italians, - - - - - - - 81.80 

130 Austrian Germans, - - - - 82.00 

100 South Germans, - 83.00 

n. MONGOLOIDS. 

101 Eskimo (Bessels), 71.37 

21 Eskimo, of Greenland, - - - 71.71 11 Asiatic Eskimo (Dall), - - - - 79.5 

6 N. W. American Eskimo (Dall), - - 75.1 5 Ainos (perhaps not Mongoloid), - - 76.00 

15 Aleutians (Bessels), - - - - - 78.00 

27 South Americans, ----- 79.16 

36 North Americans, - - - - - 79.25 

11 Mongols, various, - - - - - 81.40 

10 Indo-Chinese (Malayo-Chinese, - - - 83.51 5.Finns, ------- 83.69 

30 Lapps, from Scandinavian Museums, - - 84.93 

11 Lapps, ------- 85.07 

4Esthonians, - - - - - - 90.39 

III. NEGROES. 

4 Joruba Negroes, 69

12 Dahomey Negroes, - - - - - 72 4 Zulu Kaffirs, 72 

8 Kaffirs, ------- 72.54 

17 Negroes, 73 

85 Negroes, of Western Africa, - - - 73.40 17 Negroes, of Equatorial Africa, - - 76 

IV. HOTTENTOTS AND BUSHMEN. 

18 Hottentots and Bushmen, - - - - 72.42 

4 Bushmen, 73 

3 Hottentots, - - - 76 

V. AUSTRALIANS. 

15 Australians (Davis), - 71 

27 Australians, 71.49 

VI. PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 

19 Troglodytes, of La Lozere (Polished Stone*), 73.22 5 Cro-Magnon and Paris diluvium, - - 73.34 54 Dolmens, of 

North of Paris (Polished Stone), 75.01 26 Dolmens, of La Lozere (Polished Stone), 75.86 44 Troglodytes, of de 

laMarne (Polished Stone), 78.09 16 Troglodytes, of L'Oise (Polished Stone), 79.50 

These tables show: (1) The Noachites are all brachycephalic, except the Irish and English, who are mesocephalic. (2) 

The Mongoloids exhibit a remarkable range, nearly all being brachycephalic, and the northern Mongoloids excessively 

so, except the Eskimo, who are the only dolichocephalic type among them, and the doubtful Amos, who are 

mesocephalic. The Mongoloids present the highest brachycephalism known (in the Esthonians), and at the same time 

almost the highest dolichocephalism known (in the Eskimo). These are divergences of racial value. (3) The Negroes 

are all dolichocephalic, except certain mesocephalic 

* Prehistoric time in Europe has been divided as follows: Stone Age. 

Palaeolithic or Rude Stone Epoch. 

Reindeer Epoch.

Neolithic or Polished Stone Epoch. 

Bronze Age. 

Iron Age. 

tribes of the interior. (4) The Hottentots and Bushmen range from dolichocephalic to mesocephalic. (5) The 

Australians are dolichocephalic to a marked extent. (6) The prehistoric tribes of Europe, as before stated,* range, like 

the Mongoloids, from dolichocephalic to brachycephalic. 

The "cranial index" is obviously a very imperfect measure of relative racial characteristics. It does not consider what 

proportion of the length is frontal and what occipital. Two crania with the same index may possess very different 

intellectual characteristics; as two crania of the same index may possess extremely different "capacities," or two crania 

of extremely different indices may possess the same capacity. Apparently a comparison of measurements from the 

auditory orifice on one side, around the frontal region, to the auditory orifice on the other side, would furnish valuable 

data. These might be compared with measurements around the occiput. Both measurements combined with the index 

of breadth would eliminate the relative intelligence with some degree of definiteness. 

To supply the deficiencies of the cranial index, anthropologists have resorted to various systems of "radii," proceeding 

from the center of the auditory meatus to the projection of the most prominent parts of the cranium. The following 

table presents results of measurements in two races: 

AURICULAR RADII. 

355 Parisians. Negroes. 

Alveolar radius (to base of upper incisors), 99.0 113.7 Nasal radius (to root of nose between the 

eyes), 89.3 95.7 

Supra-orbital radius (to middle of superciliary ridge), 98.3 103.0 

* See chapter x. 

3.">5 Parisians. Negroes. 

Bregmatic radius (to highest point on top 

of skull), - - - - - 111.6 109.8 

Lamboidal radius (to upper edge of occipital bone), 104.6 101.2

Iniac radius (to ridge on posterior base of 

cranium), 76.9 75.0 

Opisthiac radius (to posterior border of 

foramen magnum), - - - - 42.3 42.6 

M. Broca has aimed at similar results by another method, which gives the relative proportions between the projection 

of the whole head, viewed from the side, and the facial, anterior and posterior portions of the projection respectively. 

The facial portion is the part in front of a perpendicular let fall from the supraorbital point, on the alveolo-condylar 

plane. The anterior portion of the head lies between this and a vertical line erected from the middle of the great 

foramen. The posterior portion of the head lies behind the same line. The following are Broca's results, the whole 

projection of the head being 1000: 

Difference 4- or — in 

Europeans. Negroes. Negroes. 

Projections of the face, - 64.8 137.5 +72.7 Projections of anterior cranium, 409.9 361.0 —48.9 Projections of posterior 

cranium, 525.2 501.3 —23.8 

From such measurements M. Broca concludes: (1) The face of the Negro occupies the greater portion of the total 

length of the head. (2) His anterior cranium is less developed than his posterior, relatively to that of the White. (3) His 

occipital foramen is situated more backward in relation to the total projection of the head, but more forward in relation 

to the cranium only. In other words, the Negro has the cerebral cranium 

less developed than the White; but its posterior portion is more developed than the anterior. 

Another important ethnological character is prognathism, or projection of the face, and especially the jaws, beyond the 

vertical plane which coincides with the forehead; but different authors have located these lines somewhat differently. 

In the following tables the horizontal plane extends from the bases of the front teeth in the upper jaw to the lower 

surface of the occipital condyls, by which the cranium is articulated with the first vertebra. This is called the alveolocondylar 

plane. The central line of this plane is used. The other line extends from the same "alveolar point" at the base 

of the upper incisor teeth, to the "subnasal point" at the base of the opening of the anterior nares. The angle of 

prognathism is at the alveolar point. This is the method of Lucae, adopted by Topinard, and varies but little from 

Broca's method.* 

PROGNATHISM. 

I. NOACHITES.

76 Auvergnians, France, - 77°. 18 

350 Parisians, 78°. 13 

22 Gauls, - - 80°. 87 

15 Corsicans, ------ 81°.28 

II. MONGOLOIDS. 

45 Malays, 69°.49 

10 Eskimo, 71°.46 

2 Asiatic Eskimo (Dall), - 72°.5 

2 1ST. W. American Eskimo, - - - 74°.0 

14 Chinese, ------ 72°.0O 

7 Finns and Esthonians, - 75°. 53 

III. NEGROES. 

52 Negroes, of West Coast, - 66°. 91 

* Topinard, Anthropology, p. 277 et seq. 

IV. HOTTENTOTS AND BUSHMEN. 

7 Namaquans and Bojesmans, ... 59°. 58 

V. AUSTRALIANS. 

11 Australians, ------ 68°. 24 

VI. PREHISTORIC. 

14 From Cavern of 1'Homme Mort. - - 79°.77

VII. AVERAGES. 

White Eace, ----- 82° to 76°.5 

Yellow Races (Asiatic Mongoloids), - 76° to 68°.5 Black Races, 69° to 59°.5 

These numbers speak for themselves. Prognathism is a character which presents less range than the cranial index, 

within race limits. All Noachites possess a higher angle than the averages of any other race. The lowest of the 

Mongoloids are higher than the highest of the Black races. The Hottentots and Bushmen possess a degree of 

prognathism which is extreme and even frightful. 

I add a few other anatomical characters. In the Negro skull the sphenoid does not, generally, reach the parietals, the 

coronal suture joining the margin of the temporals. The skull is very thick and solid, and is often used for butting, as is 

the custom of rams. It is flattened on the top, and well adapted to carrying burdens. The clavicle is longer in proportion 

to the humerus than in the White. His radius is perceptibly longer in proportion to the humerus—thus approximating 

to that of the ape. The scapula is shorter and broader. A character of the humerus, or arm-bone, was remarked by 

Cuvier, which approximates the Bushman to monkeys, dogs and other carnivores, as well as the wild boar, the 

chevrotain and the daman. It was the non-ossification of the wall separating the anterior cubital fossa from the 

posterior fossa of the humerus — something which will be intelligible to persons versed in anatomy. The pelvis in the 

Negro is narrower than that of the White, and yellow races. In adult Negroes, the pelvis measures from 26 to 28 inches 

in circumference; in Whites, from 30 to 36. The pelvis is also more inclined. 

The arm is shortest in Whites, longest in Negroes, and intermediate in mulattoes. 

In 10,876 American soldiers, the middle finger, when the arm was suspended, reached to the knee within 7.49 per cent, 

of the body's length; in 863 mulattoes, 6.13 per cent. of the body's length; in 2,020 Negroes, 4.37 per cent. of the 

body's length; in 517 Iroquois Indians, 5.36 per cent, of the body's length. 

Frequently, among the Negroes, the middle finger touched the patella; once it was 12 millimetres below its upper 

border, as in the gorilla.* 

The following are weights of brains in some of the principal races, in grammes. 

No. of No. of Mean 

Men. Wt. Women. Wt. Weight. 

Europeans, - - - 241 1,375 106 1,217 1,296 Negroes, - - - - 17 1,208 4 1,149 1,178 Hottentots, - - - - 2 974 

Australians, - - - 1 907 

One of the most important of racial distinctions is the relative density of the cerebral substance. It has not been

possible, as yet, to reach exact results in this particular; but it is ascertained that the brain of the Germans is less dense 

than that of the European nations generally; and it is agreed that the quality of the brain in inferior races is not equal to 

that of the superior races. 

* Topinard, Anthropology, p. 335. 

Among Negroes, the cerebral substance is not so white as among Europeans. Among inferior races, the convolutions 

are larger and less complex. In the Bushman Venus (so-called), dissected by Cuvier, the superior frontal convolution 

was not unfolded. 

Fig. 19. A common Hawaiian woman; very characteristic. From a photograph received from Rev. S. E. Bishop, of 

Honolulu. 

Among the Negroes, the capacity of the lungs is less than among the Whites; and the circumference of the chest is less. 

The legs are more slender, the calf is smaller, and placed at a higher elevation. The thinner muscles are a general 

characteristic, as may also be seen in the arm. The heel is more projecting and the arch of the foot is less. As to the 

pilous system, it is deficient in the Negro. The hairs of the head are black and crispy, with a flat transverse section, and 

are inserted vertically in the scalp. The Mongoloids have coarse, straight cylindrical hair. The nose of the Negro is 

wide and flat; the jaws are wider than in Europeans, and hence the teeth are less crowded and more regular. The skin 

is black, velvety and comparatively cool. 

Between the form of the upper lip of the Negro and that of the Polynesian, a very perceptible and charac 

Fig. 20. Outline of the muzzle of the Polynesian.

Fig. 21. Outline of the muzzle of the Negro. Compare also the Hottentot, Fig. 46. 

teristic contrast exists, to which my attention has been called by Rev. S. E. Bishop, of Honolulu. In the Hawaiian, the 

skin of the upper lip seems a little too short, and the lip is consequently lifted up from the lower into a semi-horizontal 

position; and this retroversion extends well toward the angles of the mouth. The inner skin of the lip, meantime, is 

ample. This is well illustrated in the Hawaiian woman here shown. (Fig. 19.) In the Negro, this deficiency in the skin 

of the upper lip does not exist. Its position is therefore more declined. The inner skin, nevertheless, is often more ample 

than in the Polynesian, and the lip is thicker. The more retreating chin of the Negro contributes to the formation of a 

more projecting muzzle. The contrasts are shown in the two accompanying outlines. 

2. Physiological Comparisons. "In the Negro, the development of the body is generally in advance of the White. His 

wisdom-teeth are cut sooner; and in estimating the age of his skull, we must reckon it as at least five years in advance 

of the White." This accelerated development is illustrated in the comparative strength of Whites and Negroes at the 

same ages. At seventeen years of age, the strength of back in the White is 114 kilograms; in the Negro, 131 kil. At 

twenty years, the strength of the White is 150 kil.; of the Negro, 140 kil. At twenty-five years, that of the White is x66 

kil.; of the Negro, 155 kil. The Iroquois Indians exceed all races in the strength of the back, which attains 190 kil. In 

the Hawaii Islanders, it is 171 kil.; in the French, 160 kil.; in Mulattoes, 158 kil.; in 6,381 white soldiers, 155 kil.; in 

1,600 Negroes, 146 kil.; in 57 Chinese, 111 kil.; in 30 Australians, 100 kil. In manual strength, however, the French 

stand 60.0; while Chinese, French seamen, white soldiers, white American seamen, Negroes, Mulattoes, and Iroquois 

Indians, all stand at 46.8. Even Australians reach 48. 

The temperament of the Negro is more sluggish than that of the white man. In Africa, the Negroes are extremely 

indolent, and use little exertion for their well-being.* Every person who has resided in the midst of a Negro population 

in our Southern States has been compelled to remark their incapability of intense effort, 

* Topinard, Anthropology, p. 395. 

and their constitutional sleepiness and slowness. This inability to make great exertions secures them from fatigue, and 

diminishes the demand for regular periods of total repose and invigorating sleep. In a true sense, they are in a state of 

partial sleep during the day, and hence are able to pass night after night without a total suspension of their usual 

activity. The constitutional slowness and indolence of the Negro condition the progress of all business in which they 

are employed, create the necessity of waiting for his motions, and finally induce in the life of the Whites who are 

dependent on Negro service a similar sluggishness and slouchiness. In respect to activity, industry and enterprise, the 

habits of the Negro have not improved with his improved freedom and self-dependence. In slavery, coercion prompted 

to some regular occupation, however inefficient; in a state of liberty, the Negro exercises his right to live in idleness 

until he becomes the abject slave of want.* It is said that the Negro population in America experiences a much higher 

rate of mortality, since he enjoys the privilege of taking care of himself, than when it was the duty and interest of his 

master to provide for him. The next census will give us certain information on this point. These are only general 

statements, and do not, of course, imply that there are no Negroes who are industrious, thrifty and healthy. As general 

statements, whose truth can be easily substantiated, even in the presence of Aryan civilization, they point out 

deepseated and ineradicable race-characteristics. 

The disparity between the Negro and the White 

* The writer's observations on the Negro in slavery were made chiefly in Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. Since 

their emancipation he has known them personally in Kentucky in 1807 and 1868, and in Tennessee in 1876,1877 and

1878. 

races is brought out in the relative magnitude of the doses of medicine usually demanded by them. Dr. J. Hendree, now 

of Anniston, Alabama, writes, under date of August 30, 1878: "Let me mention one fact especially, drawn from my 

own experience of forty years. The coarseness and insensibility of their [the Negroes'] organization makes them require 

about double the dose of ordinary medicine used for the Whites. To the Mulatto I give less than to either. It is a 

delicate race." Again, under date of September 12, he writes: "I am now practicing for the Woodstock Iron Co., on 

about 800 hands, equally divided between the two races, and I find the rule to hold perfectly good. Negroes are not 

satisfied with small broken doses. When I give a drastic cathartic they are pleased, and generally return to the office to 

tell me that the dose affected them severely, but 'did 'em lots of good.' Among the overseers on Alabama cotton 

plantations, who had to deal out a good deal of calomel, quinine, salts, etc., 'horse-doses for Negroes' was a common 

saying. This is a rough way of putting it, but the fact remains the same." I have been personally acquainted with Dr. 

Hendree for many years, and I can vouch for his large intelligence and thorough education. Similarly, Dr. M. L. 

Barron, of Drayton, Georgia, writes, November 1, 1878: "I have practiced among the Negroes over forty years . . . 

Your information in respect to the doses of medicine for the colored people corresponds with my experience — except 

as regards opiates; and perhaps they will bear large quantities of these, as I have known some to take very large doses 

with impunity." * Dr. Moselysays: 

*Both these correspondents refer to Dr. Cartwright, formerly of Natchez, and afterward of New Orleans, as the author 

of one or more publications on this subject, and a contributor to the once "Negroes are void of sensibility to a 

surprising degree. They are not subject to nervous diseases. They sleep soundly in every disease, nor does any mental 

disturbance ever keep them awake. They bear chirurgical operations much better than white people; and what would be 

the cause of insupportable pain to a white man a Negro would almost disregard." * 

The feebleness and perishableness of the Mulatto, to which reference has already been made in chapter vi, is to be 

regarded as further proof of the physiological distance between the Negro and White races. Much has been written on 

this subject,f though the proposition has been disputed, and I shall not enter upon the discussion at present, further than 

to make two citations. Dr. Barthold Seemann, writing of the mixed races of the Isthmus of Panama, says: "The 

character of the half-castes is, if possible, worse than that of the Negroes. These people have all the vices, and none of 

the virtues, of their parents. They are weak in body, and more liable to disease than either the Whites or other races. It 

seems that as long as pure blood is added to the half-castes proper, when they intermarry only with their own color 

they have many children, but they do not live to grow up; while in families of unmixed blood the offspring are fewer 

but 

famous work " Cotton is King." None of his writings are accessible to me at present. Dr. Barron refers, also, to Rev. 

Dr. Hamilton, "The Friend of Moses " [New York, 1852], as touching on the same topic. This work is contemptuously 

handled by Nott and Gliddon. Dr. Hendree refers to the German physiologist Mtiller, and a work by Count Gobineau, 

translated and edited by Dr. J. C. Nott, late of Mobile. 

*Mosely, Treatise on Tropical Diseases. 

t See, for example, the paper of Dr. Kneeland, from which I have already cited, on page 84. This is a scientific paper 

"On the Sterility of many of the Varieties of the Domestic Fowl and of Hybrid Races Generally," in Proceedings 

American Association, 1855, p. 246. of longer lives. As the physical circumstances under which both are placed are the 

same, there must really be a specific distinction between the races, and their intermixture be considered as an 

infringement of the law of nature." * As a second citation I desire to place on record the intelligent original testimony 

furnished by Dr. Hendree, already quoted. After stating that Mulattoes generally marry persons of pure or nearly pure 

Black blood, he adds: "As a race, they are incapable of the labor and endurance of the Negro, and, before the war, 

brought lower prices, except for indoor occupations, as waiters, barbers, etc. When they breed in-and-in by

intermarriage among themselves, scrofula and degeneration of tissue rapidly show themselves, offspring become less 

numerous, and I believe the reproductive power would die out. I have had, in cases in the second generation, to deal 

with ulcers on the cornea, swellings of the neck, enlargement of glands, and the indolence and feebleness usually 

accompanying the lymphatic temperament. They are not fitted for hard labor, and not very selfsustaining. My own 

observations lead me to believe that they are becoming less numerous since the war."f 

* Seemann, Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Herald, 1845-51, London, 1853, Vol. I, p. 302. See the similar 

testimony of Baron von Tschudi, cited previously on page 83. 

t Dr. J. C. Nott states, correspondingly, "They [mulattoes] are less prolific than the parent stock; which condition is 

coupled with an inherent tendency to run out, so much so that mulatto humanity seldom if ever reaches, through 

subsequent crossings with white men, that grade of dilution which washes out the Negro stain." (Nott and Gliddon, 

Types of Mankind, p. 402.) Mr. C. L. Brace (Races of the Old World, pp. 484-489) has given such conclusions a quasicontradiction; 

but any one examining his statements and facts will recognize their inaptness and.inconclusiveness. For 

instance, he cites the increase of mulattoes in the island of Cuba as evidence of mulatto fecundity. Any one will 

reflect, instantly, that such increase may 

The exemption of the Negro from malarial diseases, from yellow fever, nervous diseases, and sundry other 

pathological affections of the White race, is another significant diagnostic. "If the population of New England, 

Germany, France, England, or other northern climates, come to Mobile," says Dr. J. C. Nott, late of Mobile, ''or to 

New Orleans, a large proportion dies of yellow fever; and of one hundred such individuals landed in the latter city, at 

the commencement of an epidemic of yellow fever, probably half would fall victims to it. On the contrary, Negroes, 

under all circumstances, enjoy an almost perfect exemption from this disease, even though brought in from our 

northern states; and, what is still more remarkable, the Mulattoes (under which term we include all mixed grades) are 

almost equally exempt. The writer has witnessed many hundred deaths from yellow fever, but never more than three or 

four cases of Mulattoes, although hundreds are exposed to this epidemic in Mobile." This curious phenomenon is 

probably to be explained, 

arise from new crosses as well as from interbreeding of mulattoes. He cites Humboldt's observations showing that the 

mulatto, in Mexico, is longer lived than the cross between the Indian and the Negro. This does not touch the question 

of vitality of mulattoes compared with Negroes or with Whites. The case was different in Brazil; but here the Negro 

was in a climate hot and malarious, like his own, while the white population had to contend with unwonted adversities. 

This principle is recognized by Brace himself, in reference to Java. Again, the relative prolificacy of different unions, 

observed by Quatrefages in South America, shows only that mulatto crosses inter se and abextra produce numerous 

offspring — something already notorious in the United States; but no light is thrown on the health and longevity of 

these broods. If the crosses between Indians and Whites are physically superior to the pure Indians, it must be 

remembered that the Indians are a branch of the Mongoloid race, to be regarded as much more closely affiliated to the 

Whites than the Negroes are. But the whole question is covered by the competent testimony of Von Tschudi and Dr. 

Seemann, already cited. 

like the requirement of larger doses of medicines, by the constitutional indolence and insusceptibility of the vital 

organism of the Negro. 

3. Psychic Comparisons. Simultaneously with a fundamental identity of anatomical and physiological characters, the 

races are widely and sufficiently distinct in details. This is also the state of the case when we compare them 

psychically. Every department of the psychic nature is possessed by Mongoloids, Negroes and Australians. Every race 

and every condition is characterized by some degree of intellectual activity, by some form of manifestation of the 

social sentiments, and by some degree of a moral and religious consciousness. But races differ both widely and 

ineradicably in the relative strength and influence of the various powers of the soul. The Mongoloids, generally, are

cold and passionless, and lack in a sense of the mirthful; but their patience is exhaustless, and their intellect easily 

grapples with mathematical conceptions. Among the Negroes the perception of music is strongly marked, and rhymes 

and rhythm are found peculiarly agreeable. The Negro is imitative and the circumstantial memory is good; but the 

power of attention and the perception of logical relations are very feeble. The social sentiments are predominating. The 

religious emotions are notoriously strong and susceptible; but these are not accompanied by any adequate intellectual 

conceptions. In fact, Negro worship, from the Lualaba to the Santee, is a brainless voluptuousness of religious emotion. 

In their native country their worship is directed toward idols and fetiches, as the media of communication with a 

supreme power, and with other good and evil spirits. In respect to intellect, they are both sluggish and incapable. The 

same indolence which controls their bodily actions affects, also, their mental movements. Statements, to reach their 

apprehension, must be many times repeated. In the pursuit of education the limit of their powers is generally reached 

with the ability to read painfully. They seldom pass intelligently through the elementary methods of arithmetic. Their 

mental sluggishness and lack of grip is manifest in their universal want of exactness in manipulation, perception and 

thought; and in their heedlessness, blunders and innumerable accidents. It is revealed not less in their inability to 

master a correct pronunciation of their native (English) language. These mental obtusities react upon the white 

populations who wait for the service of the Negro. They learn to be contented with loose and shambling results, and 

finally forget that better results are possible. 

The mental indolence of Negroes is further shown in the comparative records of insanity and idiocy. While among 

Whites, mania occurs in the proportion of 0.76 per thousand, among Negroes it is only 0.10 per thousand. While 

idiocy, among the former, is 0.73 per thousand, among the latter it is 0.37 per thousand.* 

* Topinard, Anthropology, p. 413. I am glad to note that many, exceptions exist to these general statements concerning 

the constitutional indolence and mental sluggishness of the Negro race. So far as my observation goes, however, they 

occur in individuals possessed of some, generally a large, infusion of White blood. I have sometimes, when visiting 

Fisk University, at Nashville, looked with admiration upon some of the magnificently formed heads which are there 

working, under all the discouragements of social repression, for knowledge, culture and high respectability. My 

sympathies have been deeply moved at the evidences of their earnestness and conscious strength, coupled with a keen 

and crushing perception of the weight of the social ban which their race brings upon them. I will not refrain from 

expressing here the hope that such cases may receive every encouragement and mark of appreciation. The ostra- In 

confirmation of the view here presented of Negro sluggishness and incapacity, I cite the testimony of an experienced 

teacher among the Freedmen,* under the auspices of the " Freedmen's Aid Society." He says: "In early life I had 

conceived a horror of slavery in all its forms, and had long held to the opinion that the Negro, once free, and having a 

fair opportunity, would surely make rapid progress toward becoming a good and honorable citizen. I expected a good 

deal more than I have found. ' ' After narrating the extent and variety of his experiences in New Orleans, Huntsville 

(Alabama), and Nashville, he gives his conclusions as follows: "As a rule, the Negro does not learn as well as do the 

children of this state (Ohio). Some things they seem to master readily; but when they come to any reasoning they 

usually fail. They read well if they have a good teacher, and nearly all write well. In arithmetic, grammar, geography 

and the higher branches, they are mostly very deficient. They learn definitions tolerably well, but fail in the 

application. In arithmetic, a class may learn a method of solving examples, and will work with them with wonderful 

facility. You pass on a week or so with the class, come to a place requiring the use of the principle formerly learned, 

and it is all gone. I had in my 

cism of mere color is both unchristian and irrational. Intellect, honesty, noble aspirations, demand recognition under 

every skin, of whatever hue. And I will here do Southern people the justice to testify that I have seen the black man 

among them, when possessed of these qualities, made the recipient of honors and respectful consideration of a most 

touching character. Let every aspiring colored man or woman take courage. The presence of unobtrusive aspiration 

proves that the incubus of race is absent. 

*William Morrow, Chesterville, Ohio, in The Transcript, published by the students of the Ohio Wesleyan University, 

Delaware, Ohio, Oct. 1878.

charge a class in arithmetic that had been half way through the book; upon examination, I found that not a single one 

of them could work an example in long division. . . . Some of those who are teaching, of course, are much more 

intelligent, many being able to teach arithmetic as far as decimals and interest. I meet very few who know anything 

about grammar. . . . Fear is usually the only thing that controls them. Very few of the finer feelings find any lodgment 

in their natures. Having been once taught to obey, they do moderately well. The coarse nature is easily aroused, and 

they have never heard tell of such a thing as self-control. Their anger knows no bounds, often attacking a teacher in 

open school. ... A Negro knows no bashfulness; no feeling of diffidence in the presence of superiors ever troubles him. 

If accused of anything, they assume a look of injured innocence that would credit the veriest saint in the calendar. 

They never plead guilty, and have an excuse for any and all occurrences." 

It was the theory of Prichard, * the father of ethnology, that all race distinctions are due to the influence of surrounding 

conditions. The color of the skin, especially, was thought to sustain a close relation to climate. It is the opinion, also, of 

believers in the derivative 

* James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Man, 1st ed., 1 vol., 1813; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1826; 3d 

ed., 5 vols., 1836 to 1837. Also The Natural History of Man, 4th ed., edited and enlarged by Edwin Norris, 2 vols., 

1855. Prichard, following Cuvier, was the great champion of monogeny, or the doctrine of the unity of the human 

species. Etienne Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Virey, Bory de Saint Vincent and A. Desmoulins were the early defenders, after 

Lamark, of the theory of polygeny, or diversity of human species. This view has been most ably defended by L. 

Agassiz and J. C. Nott. Since the era of Darwinisn, the question has lost its interest. 

origin of man, as well as of the different races, that environment is a condition to which organization seeks always to 

adapt itself. The unlimited correlation between organism and environment has been denied only by those who maintain 

the doctrine of the fixity of specific forms, and recognize in human races a certain number of permanently distinct 

species. The views of the old monogenists and the modern derivationists differ, however, in respect to the amount of 

time required to induce fixed physical distinctions of racial value. The monogenists maintain, generally, that all 

mankind now existing are descended from Noah, and hence that all divergences have come into existence within a 

period reaching back about 2500 or 3000 years before the Christian Era. The derivationists, on the contrary, hold that 

this allowance of time is quite insufficient. They maintain that organic transmutations are so gradual, and the 

remoteness of established racial distinctions so great, that we are required to assume a much higher antiquity for the 

existence of those races most divergent from the Mediterranean race. 

This position is sustained by all our recent observations on the distribution of races in respect to climate and other 

conditions. Color is the character observed to yield most readily to the impression of climate. But when we attend 

carefully to the climatic distribution of colors, we find the correlation between color and climate to be very far from 

exact. This is not the place to enter upon a general discussion of the subject, but I will cite a few facts. The yellowtawny-Hottentots 

live side by side with the black Kaffirs. The ancient Indians of California, in the latitude of 42 

degrees, were as black as the Negroes of Guinea; while in Mexico were tribes of an olive or reddish complexion, 

relatively light. So in Africa, the darkest Negroes are at 12 or 15 degrees north latitude; while their color becomes 

lighter the nearer they approach the equator. "The Yoloffs," says Goldberry, "are a proof that the black color does not 

depend entirely on solar heat, nor on the fact that they are more exposed to a vertical sun, but arises from other causes; 

for the farther we go from the influence of its rays, the more the black color is increased in intensity." So we may 

contrast the dark-skinned Eskimo with the fair Kelts of temperate Europe. If it be thought that extreme cold exerts 

upon color an influence similar to that of extreme heat, we may compare the dark Eskimo with the fair Finns of similar 

latitudes. Among the black races of tropical regions we find, generally, some light colored tribes interspersed. These 

sometimes have light hair and blue eyes. This is the case with the Tuareg of the Sahara, the Affghans of India, and the 

aborigines of the banks of the Orinoco and the Amazons. The Abyssinians of the plains are lighter colored than those 

of the heights; and upon the low plains of Peru, the Antisians are of fairer complexion than the Aymaras and Quichuas 

of the high table-lands. Humboldt says: "The Indians of the torrid zone, who inhabit the most elevated plains of the

Cordillera of the Andes, and those who are engaged in fishing at the 45th degree of south latitude, in the islands of the 

Chonos Archipelago, have the same copper color as those who, under a scorching climate, cultivate the banana in the 

deepest and narrowest valleys of the equinoctial region." 

The condition of the hair is found to sustain relations to climate no more exact than the complexion. The Tasmanians, 

in latitude 45°, had hair as woolly as that of the Negroes under the equator. On the contrary, smooth hair is found 

extensively in tropical latitudes, as among the Australians, the Blacks of the Deccan (India), and the Himyarites of the 

Yemen, in Arabia. Here are cases where, if heat is the cause of racial distinctions, it must have exerted its influence on 

the skin and not on the hair. 

Similar absence of correlation between stature and the environment has been ascertained. On the whole, it appears that 

race-characters have been conferred under conditions and through influences different from those which surround the 

various tribes of men in our own times. While we cannot deny that organism has been coadapted to environment in the 

progress of ages, it is true that characters finally acquired persist with a wonderful degree of changelessness from age 

to age, and under the broadest diversity of physical conditions. From the date of the earliest records the Jew has been a 

recognizable Jew, the Negro has been distinctly a Negro, and the Egyptian, and the Aryan and the Abyssinian have 

stood forth as completely differentiated as they appear to be at present. This is the fact which next demands 

consideration.

Chapter 12 

Biblical Antiquity of Race Distinctions 

WHEN Cain, according to the biblical account, was convicted before Jehovah of the murder of his brother, he was 

banished as "a fugitive and a vagabond" from the land of his parents. The culprit, reflecting on the condition to which 

he had been doomed, exclaimed, "My punishment is greater than I can bear. . . . Every one that findeth me shall slay 

me. And Jehovah said unto him, 'Therefore, whosoever slayeth Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold.' And 

Jehovah set a mark upon Cain, lest any finding him should kill him. And Cain departed and dwelt in the land of Nod, 

on the east of Eden." It is next mentioned, in the continuation of the narrative, that Cain had married a wife, and a son 

had been born whose name was KhaNOK (Enoch). Cain is next reported to have built a city, which he named after his 

son. From Enoch descended generations represented by Irad, Mehujael, Methusael and Lamech, who married two 

wives. Jabal, the son of one wife, "was the father of such as dwell in tents, and [of such as have] cattle." Jubal, his 

brother, was the father of such as handle the harp and organ. The other wife bore Tubal Cain, "an instructor of every 

artificer in brass and iron." * 

Following out, in another place, the line of the 

* Gen. iv, 12-22. The Enoch descended from Seth is also KhaNOK, Gen. v, 18, 19. The root of the name is KhaNaK, 

to straiten, to initiate or dedicate. 

Adamites, and their contemporary annals, the sacred account informs us that "When men began to multiply on the face 

of the earth, and daughters were born unto them, that the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair, 

and took them wives of all which they chose," and the children of such unions [became] mighty men which [were] of 

old men (ENoShI) of renown.* 

Now, I think that a natural and unsophisticated interpretation of the foregoing biblical statements demonstrates that 

they imply the existence of Preadamites. 

1. Cain recognizes the existence of some people in the regions remote from Eden, from whom he might apprehend 

bodily danger. He does not anticipate this because they would recognize him as an offender, but because he would be 

a foreigner and a stranger. 

2. Jehovah recognizes the existence of a foreign people, and the danger to which Cain would be exposed, and provides 

some means by which he would be protected from the effects of intertribal or interracial antagonism. 

3. Cain went toward the east, into the region which I suppose to have been peopled, at this time, either by one of the 

Black races then still spread over the earth, or, much more likely, by the primitive Dravidians, or primitive 

Mongoloids, who still maintain, in their descendants, a powerful foot-hold in all the contiguous region. The opinion 

has been advanced that the Mongoloids are a mixed or mulatto race descended from Cain and a black wife.f But this is 

a conjecture not sustained by anthropological evidence. 

* Gen. vi. 1, 2, 4. 

t Ariel [B. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn.], The Negro, What is his Ethnological Status? 2d ed. enlarged, with a review of

his review 

4. Cain found his wife in the region to which he removed. On the current pseudo-orthodox, or pseudorthodox, 

interpretation, we are deprived of this decent alternative. Cain must have married his sister or his niece, and the 

married woman must have fol 

ers, exhibiting the learning of the learned. Cincinnati, 1872, 12mo, pp. 172. The opinion cited above may be found 

expressed on pp. 105, 107 and elsewhere. That the Canaanites also resulted from a cross with the Negro is asserted on 

pp. 106, 113, 126. This is a curious, even a phenomenal, production, containing much suggestive matter almost 

inextricably mixed with a mass of mere rubbish. The work is full of vain repetitions, and its style is exceedingly 

tedious. The author perpetually wanders from the point to indulge in reflections mostly of an insulting character toward 

those who disagree — especially if "learned men." It seems to be the work of an ignorant, conceited, but strongminded 

man, dogmatic, pragmatic and captious to excess. The following are some of the positions of the work: (1) 

That mulattoes run out at " the fifth crossing"—pp.42, 94. (2) That the translation of the Sacred Scriptures is 

excessively defective — pp. 97 et passim. (3) That the Hebrew lexicons give meanings of Latin and Greek origin—p. 

103. (4) That "ish" in the Bible means negro, "enosh" a mulatto, and " anshey," one threefourths white— pp. 104, 118, 

134. (5) That the Chinese and Japanese are a third cross with the Negroes—pp. 105, 107. (6) That the Canaanites of 

Palestine are a cross with the Negro—pp. 106, 113, 126. (7) That the " land of Nod " means " the land of vagabonds 

"— p. 109. (8) That Cain's son was Enosh and not Enoch — p. 111. (9) That the Negro can amalgamate with beasts — 

p. 127. (10) That the tempter of Eve was a Negro — pp. 151, etc., 156-8. (11) That the word Ham does not mean 

black—p. 55. To these not irrational assertions may be added the following indefensible opinions: (1) That God has a 

white complexion —pp. 95, 107, 138. (2) That the world is but 6000 years old —p. 98. (3) That the Deluge was 

universal— p. 99. (4) That the Negro is not a man — pp. 100, 117 et passim. (5) That Adam was not intended to work 

— pp. 69, 120, 121. (6) That it never rained until the Flood —p. 121. (7) That the aboriginal inhabitants of all lands 

were mulattoes — p. 126. (8) That fossil remains have been left by Noah's Flood. This synopsis of points may be a 

sufficient introduction to a work which in its day produced a marked sensation. Those who desire to cultivate an 

acquaintance can procure the book (only) of A. Setleff, Nashville, Term. 

lowed him into banishment for some unnamed offense. I say "followed him," for at the date of his banishment Adam's 

daughters are not stated to have been born. Why, unless we gratuitously assume that some near kinswoman of Cain 

was also banished, should a woman leave her father's family and join herself, in a foreign land, to a convicted and 

sentenced murderer of her brother? The motive did not exist. No such woman followed Cain. His wife was a woman 

of the country to which he fled. She was a daughter of the Preadamite race. Ethnology would be gratified by the 

knowledge of the present status and home of her descendants; but we must content ourselves with conjectures. 

The conjugal difficulty does not concern Cain alone. He went abroad and married. Seth, who remained at home, found 

his wife—where? Common interpretation compels us to conclude that he married his sister. Possibly he did; and 

possibly we are all descended from such an incestuous union. But I am of the opinion that if Cain found anywhere a 

suitable wife, Seth, who was not a murderer, was equally well provided for. He found his mate among the daughters of 

the Preadamites; so that on one side none of the blood of Adam courses in our veins. 

It is proper to suggest, in this connection, that, according to my view, no such racial contrast existed between the 

family of Adam and the nonadamites as to originate a racial repugnance. Adam, probably, bore a close physiological 

resemblance to the nonadamites. It is not unscientific to admit that he may have represented a decided and even a 

sudden step in organic improvement, but I think the chief significance of Adam consists in his being the remotest 

progenitor to whom the Hebrews were able to retrace their lineage. The remotest ancestor to them known was to them 

the first man. I conceive human society, therefore, on biblical evidences, to have presented, at the advent of Adam, an 

advanced humanity, and a settled and populous condition. This is further implied in what remains to be said. Adam 

was a noble and superior specimen appearing in the midst of these Asiatic Preadamites, and intermarriages with them 

were so natural and proper, not to say unavoidable, that the annalist of those times does not deem it necessary even to

affirm the existence of other peoples contemporary with the Adamites. 

Fig. 22.—A Fair Preadamite of the Chinese family. From a photograph by D. Sewell, Sonora, Cal. 

5. Cain built a city. How did Cain build a city with only a wife and baby? Or did the populating of the city await the 

natural increase of a family? How many citizens is it probable that Cain himself furnished during his life-time? It will 

be suggested that Enoch probably assisted him; but where did Enoch obtain a wife? Did he marry one of his aunts, or 

one of his possible sisters? Is it probable that an eligible aunt would give her hand to the son of her brother's 

murderer? I would reply that Enoch intermarried with the people among whom his father had settled. I would reply that 

these people entered into the population of the Cainite city. I think such assumption removes all the embarrassments of 

the absurd traditional dogma respecting the aboriginal humanity of Cain's father. 

6. "And Irad begat Mehujael." Who was Mehujael's mother? Was she his aunt, a sister of Irad? Or was she his greataunt, 

a sister of Enoch? The popular and traditional interpretation, which calls itself "orthodox," supplies another 

muddle at this point. As orthodoxy is "right thinking," however, the alliance of all degrees of consanguinity must have 

been "right" in Cain's family; and not only in Cain's but in Seth's; and not only in Seth's but in the families of those 

other "sons and daughters" which were born to Adam. That is, a principle of moral right set down as "eternal" in the 

nineteenth century A.d., did not 

exist in the fortieth century B.c. Away with such puerilities! It is too late in the history of thought to have patience 

with the intrusion of such old dead dogmas. Conviction becomes clearer as I proceed; and even while merely 

examining the same old text as stupid antiquity pretended to make the basis of its incredible beliefs.

7. Lamech married two wives, Adah and Zillah. Who were these two ladies? And why was Lamech permitted to 

appropriate both of them in such a time of scarcity? The wrong of polygamy, perhaps, had not yet come into being. Or 

was the line of Cain permitted or abandoned to indulge in illicit practices? To what line, then, did Jacob belong? And 

Lamech made confession impartially to both his wives that he had slain a man. Exemplary bimarital candor! But who 

was this man? Did Lamech slay his father Methusael, or his grandfather Mehujael? Neither is presumable; for these 

persons, having been named when they came into being, would probably have been honored by mention when they 

went out of existence. Whom did Lamech violently remove from the population of the city of Enoch? The answer is 

suggested by the whole context: it was the son of a Preadamite. 

8. The "sons of God" married the "daughters of men." What is the meaning of this antithesis?* The "sons of God " 

plainly belonged to a different people from "the daughters of men." Who, then, were 

* " This union is generally explained by the ancient commentators, of a contact with supernatural powers of evil in the 

persons of the fallen angels [! ]; most modern interpretation refers it to intermarriage between the lines of Seth and 

Cain. The latter is intended to avoid the difficulties attaching to the comprehension of the former view, which, 

nevertheless, is undoubtedly far more accordant with the usage of the phrase 'sons of God' in the Old Testament. 

Compare Job i, C; xxxviii, 7." 

the "men"? I think it unnecessary to go far for the answer. If we go to the original of the first verse of this chapter, we 

find it to read thus: "And it was when the A DAM began to multiply on the face of the ADAMaH." Indeed! we have 

heard of ADAM and ADAMAH before. The "sons of men" were the sons of Adam — the same whom Jehovah 

Elohim created — the same whose posterity were Seth and Enos, and Cainan and Noah. Who were the "men"? The 

Bible tells us, further, that Jehovah said, "My spirit shall not always strive with ADAM"; and again, that "Jehovah saw 

that the wickedness of the ADaM was great in the earth"; and "it repented Jehovah that he had formed the ADAM," 

and "Jehovah said, I will destroy the ADAM whom I have created," and accordingly sent a Flood. The "men" in all 

these passages were the Adamites. 

The "sons of God" are mentioned in antithesis to these; they were not Adamites. Nothing is plainer, then, than that 

they were Preadamites. All conceivable humanity must have been Adamic or Preadamic. Why called "sons of God"? 

Because they were "sons," but not the sons of "men" (or Adamites), and the anthropomorphic conceptions of the 

Hebrews, who traced all things to God, led them to ascribe young men, whose ultimate ancestry was unknown, to the 

parentage of the all-producing Jehovah.* 

I know of no other rational interpretation of these 

* Does any serious objection exist against explaining Job i, 6, and xxxviii, 7, in the same way ?" There was a day 

when the sons of God [people not traceable by the Genesiacal lineage to Adam] came to present themselves before the 

Lord." In the second passage we have, "When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God [intelligences 

not of the race of Adam] shouted for joy." In this connection it is interesting to note that, according to Aben Ezra and 

Spinoza, the book of Job is the product of a Gentile pen. 

passages.* They imply, with remarkable clearness, that nonadamites were contemporaries of the immediate posterity of 

Adam. The succession of biblical statements, which I have cited and commented upon, all concur in the clear 

implication of the existence of nonadamites; and this seems to have been a fact so well known and notorious as not to 

require formal enunciation by the Hebrew writers.

* I hardly know whether to feel most chagrin or satisfaction at the discovery that the author of The Genesis of the 

Earth and of Man has treated the matter of biblical interpretation in a manner so similar to my own. I have not been 

able to see that work; and this information was only obtained by re-reading, after an interval of years, M'Causland's 

Adam and the Adamite, which I purposely abstained from consulting until my own views were in writing. I take 

pleasure in citing from M'Causland some further points made by the anonymous author referred to. "A distinction 

between Adam and ish, the one denoting the higher race, and the other as including the lower races of men, is found in 

various passages of the Scriptures. They are thus contrasted in the following passages: 'Hear this, all ye people; give 

ear. all ye inhabitants of the world. Both low and high, rich and poor together'(Ps. xlix; 1,2). The words here rendered 

'low and high ' are, when literally translated from the original, 'sons of Adam and sons of man' (ish). Again, 'Surely, 

men of low degree are vanity, and men of high degree are a lie ' (Ps. lxii, 9). Here the literal rendering of the Hebrew 

original of 'men of low degree and men of high degree' is sons of Adam and sons of man. In Isaiah we have, 'The mean 

man boweth down, and the great man humbleth himself (Is. ii, 9); the literal translation of the original is 'The Adamite 

boweth down like as man (ish) humbleth himself.' Again, 'And the mean man shall be brought down, and the high man 

shall be humbled' (Is. v, 15), when translated literally is, 'And the Adamite shall bow down, and the man (ish) shall 

humble himself.' Similar contrasts are found in Is. xxxi, 8, and Ezek. xxiii, 42." (M'Causland, Adam and the Adamite, 

pp. 172-3.)

Chapter 13 

Non-Biblical Antiquity of Race Distinctions 

THE Biblical evidences cited point strongly to the conclusion that in antediluvian times, and even as far back as Cain 

and Seth, peoples were in existence who were recognized as extra-Adamic. It does not appear that they were 

distinguished from the Adamites by ethnographic characters which constituted them a distinct "race," in the modern 

sense of the term ; but we are in possession of non-biblical records reaching back nearly to the age of Noah, or 

perhaps far beyond it, which establish the existence of strongly marked racial divergences in extremely remote, if not 

in antediluvian, times. The following passage from Topinard * expresses the general tenor of the facts: "Whether 

assisted or not by archaeology, history narrates that, under the Twelfth Dynasty, about 2300 b.c., the Egyptians 

consisted of four races: (1) The Rot, or Egyptians, painted red, and similar in features to the peasants now living on the 

banks of the Nile; (2) The Namu, painted yellow, with the aquiline nose, corresponding to the populations of Asia, to 

the east of Egypt; (3) The Nahsu, or prognathous Negroes, with woolly hair; (4) The Tamahu, Whites, with blue eyes. 

It tells us that seventeen centuries before our era, Thothmes III, of the Eighteenth Dynasty, carried his victorious arms 

over a multitude of peoples, among whom are recognized existing types of Negroes of 

♦Topinard, Anthropology, p. 428. 

central Africa; and that in the year 1500 B.c., a swarm of barbarians, blonde with blue eyes, came down upon the 

western frontier of Egypt from the north, while in Europe, at the same moment, an invasion had leaped over the 

Pyrenees, and banished the Ligurians and Sicanians into Italy, and the Iberians beyond the Ebro, into Africa." 

The various family types of the Caucasian or Mediterranean race have been preserved upon the monuments of 

Chaldaea and Assyria.* Among them we find the Semitic type as distinctly characterized as at the present day. It 

seems, indeed, to have undergone no change since the earliest records of Mesopotamia. These date back to 600, 800 

and 1,000 years before Christ. Persepolitan monuments carry the portraits of the Aryan type back to the sixth century 

before Christ. 

But Egypt leads us back to a more interesting antiquity. It was happily the custom of the Egyptians to produce 

sculptured and painted portraits of individuals who came to occupy positions of significance in their national history. 

We thus have likenesses, not only of kings and queens, but of the allies, enemies, captives, servants and slaves of the 

Egyptian monarchs and people, f I present first a general view. 

The four races of men known to the Egyptians of the Twelfth and following Dynasties have been depicted in the 

celebrated scene from the tomb of Seti-Menephtha I, of the Nineteenth Dynasty, about 1500 B C. This is commonly 

called the scene from "Belzoni's Tomb," at Thebes. "The god Horus conducts sixteen person- * See especially, Layard, 

Babylon, pp. 105, 150, 152, 153, 361, 538, 582-584, 630, etc. Also Monuments of Nineveh, 1849, folio, plate. Also 

Botta, Monuments de Ninive; Lepsius, Denkmaler, etc. etc. 

t See especially the magnificent plates of Rosellini, Monumenti deW Egitto. Also Lepsius, Denkmaler. 

ages, each four of whom represents a distinct type of the human race as known to the Egyptians." These figures are 

reproduced in the splendid folio plates of Belzoni, Champollion, Rosellini, Lepsius and others. The reduced figures as 

here given are from the smaller work of Champollion-Figeac*

The four races of men known to the Egyptians. Fig. 23, Rot of Egyptian (red). Fig. 24, Namahu or Semitic (yellow). 

Fig. 25, Nahsu or Negro (black). Fig. 26, Tamahu or Mediterranean (white). Reduced from a portion of a painted relief 

of the Nineteenth Dynasty, about 1500 B.C. 

Fig. 23, together with its three fac-simjle associates, represents the typical Egyptians as figured by an Egyptian artist. 

They are called in the hieroglyphics, Hot or Race, and are always colored red. The same style of head is repeated very 

many times on different monuments. 

Fig. 24 represents the Semitic type. This is designated Namahu in the legend over his head. This type is always colored 

yellow. 

* Champollion, UEgypte Ancienne, 1840, PI. I, and Champollionle-Jeune's description, pp. 29-31. 

Fig. 25 typifies the Negro race, called in the hieroglyphics JVahsu, and invariably painted black. 

Fig. 26 represents the Aryan or Japhetic family, which is designated Tamahu in the hieroglyphics, and is always 

indicated by a white color. 

The Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties were peculiarly prolific in iconographic monuments. The 

Seventeenth Dynasty began, according to Lepsius, at 1671 B.c.— according to Strong, at 1643 B.c.—an unimportant 

discrepancy. The Pharaonic portraits present a series ranging from pure Egyptian through intermixtures of Grecian, 

Semitic and Nubian, to nearly pure Hellenic and Jewish. The Nineteenth Dynasty, beginning with Rameses I, about 

1526 B.c. (Lepsius) to 1302 B.c. (Strong), furnishes a similar mixture of Egyptian, Greek and Semitic features in the 

portraits of the kings; and in the Twenty-second, Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Dynasties, the stock has become so 

mixed that no distinctive type can be eliminated from the iconographs. It is worthy of note, however, that the so-called 

"Ethiopian" (Twenty-fifth) Dynasty reveals no Negro blood. * The noses are straight, or slightly Jewish, and the lips 

and prognathism are strictly Egyptian, while in Sabaco, the prognathism is only strictly Aryan. The intermarriages 

between Egyptian kings and foreign princesses are facts well known to history, and thus the portraits and the annals 

illustrate each other. The intermixture of Egyptian and Asiatic blood is noted as far back as the Fourth Dynasty, which 

began, according to Lepsius, 3400 B.c. (Strong, 2269 B.c.), long before the existence of the Abrahamic stock. 

* See chapter vii, for various opinions respecting the location of Ethiopia, and the race characters of the Ethiopians. 

The representatives of foreign personages show the race characters more sharply defined. One single group of portraits

exhibits three distinct types of mankind grasped by a fourth. Eameses II, in the thirteenth or fourteenth century before 

Christ (that is during the life-time of Moses), was represented, in the temple of Abusimbel, in Nubia, in a group which 

"symbolizes his Asiatic and African conquests in a gorgeously colored tableau. He, an Egyptian, brandishes a pole-axe 

over the heads of Negroes, Nubians and Asiatics, each painted in its true colors, namely, black, brick-dust, and yellow 

flesh-color; while above his head runs the hieroglyphic scroll, 'The beneficent, 

living god, guardian of glory, smites the South; puts to flight the East; rules by victory; and drags to his country all the 

earth, and all foreign lands.'"* Among the figures of this group we recognize "one mixed, two purely African and one 

true Asi 

Fig. 27.-Aryan Portrait. atic " These four tyP es ex " FromUierergnofRamesesII, isted, then, according to this 1400 B.c. 

iconograph, about 1400 B.c. Their geographical range extended "from the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, 

beyond the northern limit of the tropical rains in Negro-land, down the river to Egypt, and thence to the banks of the 

Euphrates. Precisely the same four types occupy the same countries at the present day." f The Mediterranean race finds 

ample illustrations in a remarkable number of national types, upon the 

* Nott and Gliddon, Types of Mankind, p. 153. t See chapters iii, iv and v. 

monuments of Egypt. The head of an Aryan is well shown at the Nubian temple of Abusimbel, dating from 1400 B.c. 

(Lepsius). The tomb of Seti I, of the Nineteenth Dynasty, 1500 B.c., affords a good likeness of a Himyarite Arab (Fig. 

28). Among the prisoners of Rarneses III, of the Nineteenth Dy 

Fig. 28.—Portrait of a Himyarite Pig. 29.—Portrait of a (Kur 

Arab. From the tomb of Seti I, dish ?) Asiatic. Rameses III, 

at Thebes, Nineteenth Dynasty, Twentieth Dynasty, 1300 B.c. 1500 B.c.

Fig. 30—Portrait of a Hindu. Fig.31.—Portrait of a MongoThothmes III, Twenty- loid. Rameses II, Twen 

eighth Dynasty, 1600 B.C. tieth Dynasty, 1400 B.C. 

nasty, 1300 B.c., is the head of a Kurdish individual apparently from the Taurus chain (Fig. 29). In the Grand 

Procession of Thothmes III, of the Eighteenth Dynasty, is shown a face and head (Fig. 30), which, from its delicate 

features and straw hat is generally regarded as Hindoo. These are simply selected examples of the portraits of Aryans 

and Semites, dating from the temple-building period. 

What may be taken for a Mongoloid likeness of the Tatar type, known to the Egyptians during the reign of Rameses II, 

is depicted on the Pharaonic monuments of the fourteenth century B.c. (Fig. 31). The pure 

tians were not Negroes. Sometimes the hair seems to have been dressed in curls (Fig. 35). These portraits date from 

about 1500 B.c. The oldest portraits as yet known, however, do not vary to any important extent from these of the 

New Empire. The bas-relief portrait of the prince and priest Merhet (Fig. 36), a relative 

Egyptian type was far more common among the people than among their rulers. The heads of Amunoph II and his 

mother, however (Figs. 32 and 33), are good Egyptian figures; and the same general expression is extremely common 

among the industrial classes. The women who officiated as mourners are represented with long hair (Fig. 34); the best 

of proof that the Egypand probably a son of Shufu, or Cheops, the builder of the Great Pyramid, does not betray that

intermedium between Negro and Semitic physiognomy which 

Pig. 36.— Merhet, Prince and Fourth Dynasty, 3400 B.C. 

Priest. 

some have imagined. It is purely Egyptian. I have already stated that other portraits of the Fourth Dynasty reveal the

existence of a Semitic type. Here, therefore, we have evidence that two family types of the Mediterranean race were 

extant, according to Lepsius, in the thirtyfourth century B.c. 

Far more interesting, in relation to the present discussion, are the portraits of typical Negroes, still remaining on the 

Egyptian monuments. The cases already cited demonstrate that the family and national 

differentiations of the White race had been effected as far back as the Seventeenth and even the Fourth Dynasty. A 

single figure shows that the Mongoloid type was in existence in the Eighteenth Dynasty. But it also appears that a 

racial type, as divergent as the Negro, had become fully established at a 

Fig. 37.—Portrait of a Negro. Twentieth Dynasty, 1300 B.C. 

very remote period. Among the bas-reliefs of Rameses III, of the Twentieth Dynasty, is the figure of

Asiatic prisoner (Fig. 

a fair average representation of the Negroes of Egypt at the present day. It would certainly pass for a Negro in 

America. At Abusimbel, among so many other delineations, is a double file of Negroes and Nubians, bound and driven 

before the chariot of Rameses II, of the

signifies south, which was the direction of Negro-land. The last example is the figure of a Negress (Fig. 40), 

sculptured and painted about 1550 B.c . (Lepsius). Let this figure be compared with the description given by Virgil 

1600 years later: "Meanwhile he calls Cybale. She was his only [house] keeper; African by race, her whole figure 

attesting her father-land; with crisped hair, swelling lip and dark complexion; broad in chest, with pendant dugs and 

very contracted abdomen; with spindle shanks and broad, enormous feet, her lacerated heels were rigid with 

continuous cracks." * 

The portrait furnished by the Roman poet was anticipated by 1650 years; and both portraits are faithful to the modern 

Negress, 1830 years later. The human type has not sensibly varied during thirty-four centuries. 

Running back to the Twelfth Dynasty, we find numerous inscriptions which attest the existence of the Negro at that 

date, but no portraits seem to be extant. Lepsius, speaking of the Twelfth Dynasty, says: "Mention is often made on the 

monuments of this period of the victories gained by the kings over the Ethiopians and Negroes; wherefore, we must 

not be surprised to see black slaves and servants." f Birch cites mention of Negroes from the Twelfth Dynasty. "A 

tablet in the British Museum," he says, "dated in the reign of 

* Here is the original: 

Interdum clamat Cybalen; erat unica custos; 

Afra genus, tota patriam testante flgura; 

Torta comam, labroque tumens, et fusca colorem; 

Pectore lata, jacens mammis, coinpressior alvo,

Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta; , 

Continuis rimis calcanea scissa rigebant. For this comparison I am indebted to Dr. J. C. Nott, in Types of Mankind, p. 

255. 

t Lepsius, Briefe aus JEgypten. 

Amenemha I, has an account of the mining services of an officer in Êthiopia at that period. 'I worked,' he says, 'the 

mines in my youth; I have regulated all the chiefs of the gold-washings; I brought the metal, penetrating to the land of 

Phut, to the Nahsi [Negroes].' It is probably for these gold mines that we find in the second year of Amenemha IV, an 

officer bearing the same name as the king, stating that he was 'invincible in his majesty's heart in smiting the Nahsi.' In 

the nineteenth year of the same reign were victories over the Nahsi." * 

The same authority assures us that some information concerning the existence of the Negro can be traced back to the 

Eleventh Dynasty. "The base of a small statue inscribed with the name of the king Ra nub Cheper, apparently one of 

the monarchs of the Eleventh Dynasty, whose prenomen was discovered by Mr. Harris, on a stone built into the bridge 

at Coptos, intermingled with the Enutefs, has, at the sides of the throne, on which it is seated, Asiatic and Negro 

prisoners." This takes us back to a dynasty which began, according to Strong, in 2006 b.c., only 509 years after the 

end of the Deluge, as assumed by the same authority. These are the oldest Negro portraits known. 

Mr. Birch further states that during the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasty, there are no monuments to show that the Egyptians 

were even acquainted with the existence of the Negroes. He tells us, however, in a late work, that in the reign of Pepi, 

second monarch of the Sixth Dynasty, war was carried on against some Asiatic neighbors of the Egyptians, and an 

army of Nahsi, or Negroes, was levied as auxiliaries. "These Negroes, the first mentioned in history, were officered 

* Birch, Historical Tablet of Barneses II, London, 1852; alsa. Egypt from the Monuments. 

by the Egyptians, some of whom were priests." This record of these events was found at San or Tanis.* 

We are informed by Lepsius that African languages antedate even the epoch of Menes, 3893 B.c. 

I have thus furnished some indications of the nature of the evidence on which we affirm the very high antiquity of the 

racial distinctions existing in modern times. The following is a summary of the facts: 

1. Race types may be traced back in Chaldaea and Assyria to 800 or 1000 B.c. 

2. As early as the Twelfth Dynasty, the Egyptians recognized four races — the Red, the Yellow, the Black and the 

White. This was B.c. 1643 (Strong), 2300 (Leps.). 

3. The Pharaonic portraits of the New Empire present mixed Egyptian, Semitic and Aryan types. The oldest Jewish 

head (wife of Amunoph I) about B.c. 1671. 

4. Such intermixture existed also in the Fourth Dynasty, which began B.c. 2269 (Str.), 3426 (Leps.).

5. Pure Semitic and Aryan types are known in Egypt from iconographs of B.c. 1400 (Leps.). 

6. The Mongoloid type was figured in Egypt b.c. 1400 (Leps.). 

7. The Nubian type was figured as far back as the Eleventh Dynasty, B.c. 2006 (Str.), 2400 (Leps.). 

8. Pure Egyptian types are traced back to the Fourth Dynasty, B.c. 2269 (Str.), 3426 (Leps.). 

9. Hundreds of Negro portraits occur from the Eighteenth Dynasty down, B.c . 1492 (Str.), 1550 (Leps.). 

10. Negro portraits exist which date from the Eleventh Dynasty, B.c. 2006 (Str.), 2400 (Leps.). 

♦Birch, Ancient History from the Monuments, Egypt, p. 54. 

11. Monumental evidences of the existence of Negroes occur in the Twelfth Dynasty, B.c. 1963 (Str.), 2300 (Leps.). 

12. Monumental evidences of the existence of Negroes are even found under the Sixth Dynasty, 2081 (Str.), 2190 

(Wilk.), 2967 (Leps.). 

13. African languages existed before the First Dynasty, B.c. 2515 (Str.), 3892 (Leps.). 

I

Chapter 14 

PreAdamite Races 

I WISH now to inquire how such remarkable antiquity of all the racial types of the oriental world bears upon the 

question of Preadamites. In this inquiry, the following synopsis will be convenient for reference: 

TABLE OF FIRST-KNOWN ADVENTS OF HUMAN TYPES. 

Now, how do these dates of the complete differentiation of racial and family types compare with the received dates of 

the creation of Adam and of the Deluge? The nature of the reasoning will appear sufficiently if we follow the 

"orthodox" chronology of Dr. Strong. He places the end of the Deluge at 2515 B.c. Its beginning was, therefore, 2518 

B.c. The interval from Adam to the Deluge was, according to Poole, 2262 years; according to Petavius and general 

opinion, 1656 years. The generality of opinions lies between these two numbers. The creation of Adam was, 

accordingly, somewhere from 4780 B.c. to 4174 B.c.; or, according to Usher's postdiluvian chronology, between 4780 

B.c. and 4004 B.c. 

Adam, according to Poole, ... 4780 B.c. Adam, according to Usher and Strong, - 4174 B.c. 

Adam, according to Usher, - - - 4004 B. C. 

Deluge, according to Poole, - - - 3099 B.c. Deluge, according to Strong, ended, - 2515 B.c. Deluge, according to 

Usher, - - - 2348 B.c. 

Adopting, for the present, Dr. Strong's arrangement of the Egyptian Dynasties,* which furnishes the first column of 

dates in the table of first known advents of human types, given above, we may proceed to calculate what were the 

intervals after Adam and after the Deluge, at which the several types named are known to have been in existence. 

Such calculation furnishes the following table: 

INTERVALS FROM ADAM AND THE DELUGE TO FIRST- KNOWN ADVENTS OF HUMAN TYPES.

Now, let us place ourselves, for a moment, on the generally accepted chronology, which we find placed in the margin 

of our Bible, and which we have been taught and required to receive. Let us not follow any of the so-called 

"exaggerated" and "skeptical" arrangements of the Dynasties of Egypt, which have been given us by Bunsen, Lepsius, 

Mariette and other German and French "free-thinkers "; but let us adopt the arrangement which has been fixed to suit 

the views of an orthodox doctor of sacred theology, a professor in a theological seminary, and published in an 

orthodox quarterly review. On this basis, we discover that the existence of a well-established monarchy, and 

welldeveloped civilization was a fact sixty-nine years before the Flood—at the same time that it is held that all the 

world has been settled since the Flood/ Here is the result, exactly as orthodoxy has fixed it. The date of the Deluge 

was determined by Archbishop Usher, and the date of the Thinite Egyptian monarchy has been determined by 

Professor Dr. James Strong. Plainly, one or both of these dates is incorrect, and it is disingenuous to continue to force 

them on the credence of the world. 

Dr. Strong has fixed upon a date for the Deluge which brings his Era of Menes 98 years after the Deluge. While this 

result is not absurd, I deem it eminently improbable. Poole gives us 682 years between Strong's Era of Menes and the 

Deluge. This is still better; and Poole's Era of Menes affords further relief. Still, I cannot but feel, in view of the whole 

body of facts, that all these attempts are constrained and puerile. 

Now, running the eye down the table, it appears that Chaldaean and Hebrew types had been introduced into Egypt but 

79 years after the Deluge, according to Usher, or 246 years after the Deluge, according to Strong. It cannot be said that 

the mixed Egyptian and Semitic features are to be regarded like "comprehensive " or unresolved types in 

palaeontology, because the pure Egyptian type was abundantly delineated at the same date (see figs. 32-35, and 

especially iig. 36); and this, as the monuments show, was the type of the popular mass, while the mixed type was 

dynastic, resulting from the royal privilege and opportunity of intermarrying with foreign houses. Similarly, the 

Hellenic type, nearly or quite pure, was delineated 182 years after the Usherian Deluge, and only 349 years after the 

Deluge fixed by Strong. 

Our deepest interest is in the widely divergent Negro type. This is unmistakably characterized by deep and broad racial 

distinctions. But this strongly emphasized divergence is known, through inscriptions, to have been in existence 268 

years after the Usherian Deluge; and the actual iconographs depict it under full development 342 years after the 

Usherian Deluge, and but 509 years after the Deluge as dated by Strong. Let us pause over the significance of these 

comparative dates. Suppose we ignore the historical mention of Negroes in the inscriptions of the Sixth Dynasty, and 

pass down to the inconographs of the Eleventh Dynasty. The actual portraitures on the Egyptian monuments exhibit the 

Negro in all his characteristics, as broadly differentiated from the Noachite as he is to-day upon the banks of the 

Congo. The accepted chronology teaches us that this divergence had been effected in 509 years. This result had been 

reached 2006 years before Christ, and it is now 1879 years after Christ. It is 3885 years since the Negro was 

completely a Negro. In 3885 years the Negro has not changed to such an extent that we can detect the change; and yet

we are assured that during the 509 years immediately preceding he had changed by all the amount which distinguishes 

him from the race of the Apollo Belvedere! 

Let it be kept in mind that we are not dealing with fabulous numbers —not even with German chronology,— but with 

dates which evangelical investigators have fixed according to their own view of the requirements of facts. Is it credible 

that the immediate posterity of Noah split abruptly into so broad a divergence, and have remained unchanged ever 

since? Did they breathe a different air, drink different water, subsist on different food? There is no end to possible 

conjectures. We might even go the length of that easy faith which maintains that fossil bones were created in the 

rocks; but I shall not follow such brainless credulity with an argument. Resting on scientific grounds, we must 

pronounce it absolutely incredible that the Negro type diverged completely from the Noachic in 509 years. 

Suppose, then, we contemplate the subject from the standpoint of a local Deluge. This relieves us of the necessity of 

tracing all human types to Noah. We must trace to Noah only the families of Noachites. Supposing all human types 

derived from Adam, a local Deluge affords us from 1656 to 2262 years more for racial divergences. On this basis, 

Usher gives us 1998 years from Adam, for the evolution of the Negro type, and Strong gives us 2168 years. That is, 

according to Usher, Adam appeared 5883 years ago; the Negro was finally differentiated in 1998 years, and has not 

changed during the last 3885 years. According to Strong, Adam appeared 6055 years ago; the Negro was fully 

differentiated in 2168 years, and has not changed during the last 3887 years. In other words, according to Usher, the 

Negro continued to diverge during thirty-four per cent, of his existence upon the earth; during the remaining sixty-six 

per cent, he has not diverged to any appreciable extent. According to Strong, the Negro continued to diverge during 

thirty- six per cent, of his existence upon the earth; during the remaining sixty-four per cent, he has not diverged to 

any appreciable extent. Can any scientific reason be assigned for the arrest of this divergence during the last two-thirds 

of the Negro's earthly existence? I confidently believe that no such reason can be produced. All analogies, however, 

negative the assumption of any such interruption of the Negro's progressive differentiation. Palaeontology furnishes 

numerous lines of organic forms which have come down to us from the date when the Negro is known to have been 

fully differentiated. They have persisted, like the Negro, for 4000 years; they generally exhibit no more organic change 

during 4000 years than the Negro does. Here is the sacred ibis, of Egypt, and the crocodile, and the scarabaeus; here is 

the well-known ass, and the ox; here are the dog, the cat and the ape. They are pictured to us from the Fourth Dynasty; 

they remain, like the Negro, sensibly unchanged during forty centuries. But some of these unvarying lines of descent 

can be traced backward beyond forty centuries. Do we find them manifesting rapid changes during the next preceding 

twenty centuries? The very question is preposterous; it hints at the possibility that Nature has not been uniform —that 

her methods have sometimes been superseded, and man's intelligent confidence in her fidelity to law is misplaced. No 

truly scientific mind can entertain the suggestion. No; 6000 years reveal no more change than 4000, so far as our 

means of measurement go. The lineage of the horse reaches back far beyond the accepted epoch of Adam, and he is 

everywhere a horse. By all analogies the Negro type must have persisted from an epoch more remote than Adam. 

But we need not deny that the Negro is actually in process of divergence. During the 4000 years of apparent stability, 

the type, we believe, has yielded, to some real extent, to the common tendency to variation, which most biologists hold 

to be a fundamental law of organization. The horse, traced backward into geological time, brings us soon to an equine 

modification which proclaims the reality of change, in the equine type. It is not this type alone which teaches us that 

existing forms have emerged from ancient forms which are only fundamentally similar. We trace backward the types 

of the pig, the deer, the camel, the rhinoceros, the tapir, the elephant; and soon as we begin to penetrate the abysses of 

geological time we gaze upon forms too alien to be identical, and yet too like to be anything else, fundamentally, than 

the living forms from which we receded. It is reasonable to hold, therefore, with the ancient theologians, that the Negro 

is the living representative of a type which possesses real mutability, and has witnessed real transformations; only, we 

cannot go with the ancient theologian in maintaining that all his transformations took place in 2000 years, and then 

ceased; nor in maintaining that the type of Adam was the starting-point of his transformations. All the positive data 

tend toward the conviction that the Negro has come down to us from Preadamic times; that he has always varied at a 

rate practically uniform, and that consequently his origin must not be sought in Noah, 4000 years back, nor in Adam, 

6000 years back,

* 

218 PEEADAMITES.but in some humble progenitor living on the earth many thousand years before Adam. 

Should we adopt the most generally approved German arrangement of the Egyptian Dynasties, all the considerations 

leading to the above conclusion would be perceptibly strengthened. Lepsius adjusts the Manethonian Dynasties in such 

a manner as to bring the Era of Menes at 3892 B. C.; and thus, all other Egyptian dates, down to the Twenty-second 

Dynasty, are correspondingly more removed. The greatest discrepancies, however, between the chronology of Lepsius 

and that of Poole or Strong, occur in the remoter periods. Leaving the assumed epochs of Adam and the Deluge to 

stand as before, the intervals from Adam and the Deluge to the dates of divergence of human types delineated on the 

monuments of Egypt will be, on the basis of the Lepsian arrangement of the Dynasties, somewhat as shown in the 

following table: 

INTERVALS FROM ADAM AND THE DELUGE TO FIRSTKNOWN ADVENTS OF HUMAN TYPES. 

The Egyptian chronology of Lepsius is by no means the most prolonged which German scholar 

ship has produced. Brugsch carries the Era of Menes 508 years farther back than Lepsius; Unger, 1721 years; Bockh, 

1810 years; Mariette, whose determinations are generally adopted by Lenormant, removes the Era of Menes 1112 

years beyond the date assigned by Lepsius; yet Lepsius fixes this date 1175 years earlier than Poole, whose chronology 

is adopted in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. Strong brings the Era of Menes 1475 years lower than Lepsius. On the 

whole, if we give equal weight to the great authorities, we shall find Lepsius occupying a medium posi tion. 

Now, the above table shows, on the basis of the Egyptian chronology of Lepsius, that the Usherian date of the Deluge 

is 1544 years after the establishment of empire in the valley of the Nile. Even Strong brings the Deluge 1377 years 

after Menes. According to the Usherian chronology and faith, Egyptian, Chaldaean, Hebrew, Hellenic, Negro and 

Nubian types of Noachidae had all been developed in Egypt before the postdiluvian life of Noah. Such 

incompatibilities are too glaring to require exhibition. Either Lepsius or Usher must be shown in the wrong. But even 

according to Strong, the first four types above named existed before the Deluge, and the Negro and Nubian, but 115 

years later than that cataclysmic starting-point of nations. Indeed, we have evidence of the inscriptions that the Negro 

existed 452 years before the Deluge as fixed in chronology by Strong. So Lepsius and Strong are also pitted against 

each other. It will require a high authority to set Lepsius aside. 

Continuing the comparisons, we perceive that the Lepsian date of Menes is only 112 years later than the Usherian date 

of Adam. We perceive, also, that the Egyptian, Chaldaean, Hebrew, Negro and Nubian types of humanity had come 

into existence within 1037 years of Adam's advent, according to Usher, or 1207 years according to the Usher-Strong

determinations. Even the demonstrative iconographs do not postpone the Negro's advent beyond 1604 and 1774 years 

after Adam, according to Usher and UsherStrong, respectively. Now, proceeding as before, Usher informs us, through 

his chronology, that the Negro was fully differentiated in 1037 years (if we follow the inscriptions), or, at most, 1604 

years (following the iconographs), and has since lived 4279 to 4846 years without sensible change. Strong assures us 

that the Negro was differentiated 1207 or, at most, 1774 years after Adam, and has since persisted 4281 to 4748 years 

without further change. That is, eighteen or, at most, twenty-seven per cent, of the Negro's existence, according to 

Usher,— even, unlike Usher, supposing him to have started from Adam,—was occupied in completing his full 

divergence from the type of a white man; and seventy-three to eighty-two per cent, of his whole lifetime has since 

been passed, under the same conditions, without any perceptible amount of the same results being worked out. If we 

follow Strong, these percentages become twenty or twenty-nine and seventy-one or eighty. 

These calculations are based on views of Egyptian chronology, which seem to me as reasonable, and as well 

authenticated, as any; and the results materially emphasize the reasoning already employed in reference to the other set 

of results. There is no escape from these difficulties, except in allowing the Negroes a Preadamic career. If we 

overthrow the chronology of Lepsius, we fall upon the nearly equal inconsistencies which grow out of the use of 

Strong's Egyptian chronology. There may be those who will pooh-pooh these difficulties. I can believe there are men 

who would rather hold, gratuitously, that the course of Nature has been arrested and disordered, than admit that the 

mediaeval understanding of the most ancient document in existence is capable of being improved by five hundred 

years of later investigation. Such faith is heroic and worthy of reverence; and I shall satisfy myself with paying it this 

homage rather than aspiring to emulate it. 

Three other Black races remain. Is there any probability, in view of what has emerged from a study of the Negroes, 

that the Hottentots, Australians and Papuans have descended from Adam,— not to suggest their descent from Noah? 

These races are all about equally divergent from the Noachian and Adamic types. Any conclusion admissible 

concerning the antiquity of the Negroes will not be questioned when applied to the other Black races. Holding it 

incredible that the Negroes are descended from Noah, or even from Adam, I shall confidently set them down with 

Hottentots, Australians and Papuans, as descendants of a Preadamite humanity.

Chapter 15 

Hamitic Origin of Negroes Considered 

POPULAR opinion respecting the origin of the Negro race has viewed them as descendants of Ham. This view, 

originating in a remote age, has retained its position in the ecclesiastical system with all the tenacity which 

characterizes beliefs hallowed by ecclesiastical sanction. I have sought for the grounds on which the opinion has been 

made to rest, but I have not succeeded in finding either a scientific or biblical defense which I could ascribe to the 

holders of the opinion without fear of affronting their intelligence. The opinion seems to be held because it has been 

held. Because the church has given it to us, many think it must be both sound and sacred, and deem their religion 

insulted by the suggestion that Ham was not the father of the Negroes. Indignation is in nowise appeased by the 

demonstration that no such opinion is inculcated in Sacred Scripture. Nevertheless, I shall treat old opinion only with 

the reverence due to its antiquity. Extreme age earns consideration, even without the adjunct of intelligence. I shall 

frame my beliefs with exclusive reference to rational grounds, and shall continue to smile at the horror of those who 

think religion consists in denunciation of persons who believe differently from themselves. 

In the absence of any formal defense of the theory of the Hamitic origin of Negroes, I shall cite what I suppose to be 

the grounds on which the opinion would be defended, if the attempt were made.* In fact, some incidental apologies for 

the Hamitic theory which I have met with lead me to think the following the strongest known reasons for entertaining 

it: 

1. The genealogical lists given in Genesis are not complete. I reply: 

(1) This is bare assumption. It is not intimated in the fifth, tenth and eleventh chapters of Genesis, nor in the first 

chapter of 1 Chronicles, where the genealogy is rehearsed, nor in the first chapter of Matthew, that any essential fact is 

omitted. The genealogies are tacitly produced as complete. No exception being taken in the course of 2500 years — the 

lists being reproduced by pens held to be inspired, I submit that it is more probable the lists are complete than that 

serious omissions exist which lead the reader into inevitable misapprehensions. When I speak of completeness, I mean 

the inclusion of all names which could affect the ostensible purposes of the lists—the lineage of Jesus Christ and the 

estimate of time. 

(2) If omissions exist, they must consist of omissions of generations, or of collateral heads of families. The omission 

of generations would only have the effect of shortening the apparent intervals from Adam to the Flood, and from the 

Flood to Abraham. Such a lengthening of our conception of the Patriarchal 

*Dr. Johnson, in replying to the question, "How is the color of the Negro accounted for?" is said to have replied: 

"Some think they are children of Ham, whose son was cursed; others, that they are descendants of generations who 

have lived under burning suns; and others, that they are a distinct race." The reader may recall the fable of Phaethon, 

as told by Ovid in the Metamorphoses. The son of Apollo, having obtained consent to drive his chariot one day, lost 

control of the fiery steeds, and they ranged so near the equatorial region as to scorch the skins of the inhabitants. 

period would afford relief at many points, but those who maintain the accepted chronology do not feel the need of such 

relief. They impliedly deny the possibility of such recourse, and are self-precluded from pleading or admitting a defect 

of this nature in the ethnographic tables. The mention of the probability is disingenuous. If a prolonged chronology 

would make room for the Negroes, it would none the less overthrow the chronological system which has been built up 

with such care and nursed with such tenderness. The defenders of the system are at liberty to abandon it for the sake of 

providing a place for the Negro in the family of Ham; but in this case they must cease coddling and patching the

system under any guise; even then they will have little prospect of success in providing such place, for more than a 

slight lengthening of chronology is required. 

Next, the omission of heads of families — as of the unnamed "sons and daughters" of Adam, would afford no help for 

the popular chronology; because it is time which the broad divergence of the Negro from the Hamite requires, not 

more brothers and cousins. The broad racial separation of the Negro demands, at the low rate of divergence in 

progress, vastly more time than the accepted chronology allows; and the addition of brothers or heads of families 

would only multiply the number of nations, without providing any greater race-divergence than is now known to exist 

in the recognized Hamites. But the supposition which would increase the number of nations of Hamites is entirely 

inadmissible, because the ground is already completely covered. The Bible gives us an origin for every Hamitic nation 

ever known to exist. The supposition of unmentioned Hamitic origins is both gratuitous and superfluous. The 

hypothesis of incompleteness in< the ethnological lists, therefore, cannot be employed by the accepted chronology for 

the interpolation of additional generations, for this would be self-destructive. It cannot be employed to provide a 

collateral branch of normal Hamites, because all normal Hamites are accounted for. It cannot be employed to provide 

for a hypothetical branch of Negroid Hamites, because there is no biblical basis for the procedure, and because the 

restricted chronology does not allow a tithe of the time requisite for their development previously to the Sixth Egyptian 

Dynasty. The whole hypothesis of incomplete genealogical tables, so far as it is not fatuous and self-destructive, 

appears like the desperate effort of a man contending with dangers in the dark. 2. The curse pronounced by Noah* For 

the offense of Ham, Canaan his son received his grandfather's curse. "Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he 

be unto his brethren." It has been thought that this prophecy has found fulfillment in the habitual slavery to which the 

Negroes have been subjected by the posterity of Shem and Japheth. But this theory is almost too short-sighted for 

serious consideration. I have shown (in chapter iii) that the posterity of Canaan are not traceable into the Negro type. I 

have shown that they did not even settle on the continent of the Negroes. The Canaanites developed into Sidonians, 

Hethites, Jebusites, Amorites, Girgasites, Hivites, Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, Zemarites and Hamathites. The places of 

all these tribes have been found on the east of the Mediterranean. But '' afterward," the record informs us, "were the 

families of 

* Gen. ix, 20-27. "Noah," says Lenormant, " bad laid a curse on his son Ham, for having been wanting in filial respect, 

. . . and the curse has been fulfilled in all its completeness." (Ancient History of the East, Am. ed., I, pp. 58, 59.) 

the Canaanites spread abroad." Does this imply that they spread into Africa, and became transformed into Negroes? By 

no means; for the very next sentence assures us to what extent they were "spread abroad." "And the border of the 

Canaanites was from Sidon [on the Mediterranean] as thou comest to Gerar [on the frontier of Philistia] unto Gaza [a 

Mediterranean city on the confines of Palestine and Egypt]; as thou goest unto Sodom and Gomorrah [in the vale of 

Siddim, northwest of the Dead Sea] and Admah and Zeboiim [in the valley of the Jordan], even unto Lasha [east of 

the north part of the Dead Sea]"—"The meaning of which appears to be that the district in the hands of the Canaanites 

formed a kind of triangle — the apex at Zidon, the southwest extremity at Gaza, the southeastern at Lasha."* The 

posterity of Canaan, moreover, were white men, and not Negroes. 

The definite restrictions of the sacred text, therefore, forbid that we should find the realization of Noah's curse in the 

black skin of the Negroes, or the slavery to which they have been subjected. 

3. Tlie significance of the word Kh&M. The word is probably derived from KhaMaM, to be warm, and signifies warm 

or hot. I have given views (in chapter iii) on the import of this name. It is admitted that it does not express any 

blackness in the color of the skin. It is a descriptive designation of people dwelling in regions of the earth which, in 

comparison with the Holy Land, were "warm" or "hot"; just as Cush and Ethiopia are descriptive appellations derived 

from the "sun-burnt" complexion of the people who dwelt in some of the warm countries of Kham; and Troglodytike 

was the country of certain Troglodytes,

* George Grove, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, art. " Sodom," Vol. III, p. 1338, 2d col. 

or cave-dwellers. Even if it be insisted that the word Kham signifies black, it is, like nearly all proper names of the 

tenth chapter of Genesis, rather patrial than personal; and applies to a country rather than a man. I should thus feel 

constrained to agree with Plutarch, that it refers to the color of the alluvial soil of Egypt. 

But whatever be the signification of the word, we have traced out all the posterity of Ham, and found them in the 

"warm" zone south of the Semites; and in Egypt, upon a "black" soil; and have nowhere traced them into countries 

known to have ever been occupied by Negroes. As to the name Cush, I think it is not pretended to furnish any 

evidence in support of the Hamitic origin of the Negro.* 

4. Early racial changes were perhaps more rapid than later ones. This is merely a hypothesis on which an inference 

might be based. The strength of the inference is measured by the plausibility of the hypothesis. Dr. D. D. Whedon,f in 

glancing at the question of Preadamites, employs the following language: "Is it not reasonable to suppose, or can 

Science deny, that the Adamic race was more plastic in its early days than now? There are some things in the Bible 

that imply this. The antediluvians lived centuries; \ at any rate those in the direct patriarchal line, and it was gradually 

that their lives dwindled down to our normal period. Palaeontology is full of its displays of plasticity and variation in 

animal life. There was once an age of mammoths, and iguanodons, and other horrible things with horrible names. If 

we mistake not, species do seem to start up with strange suddenness, and develop in forms and rapidi 

* See chapter vii. 

t Whedon, in Methodist Quarterly Review, July 1878, p. 565. 

% This is a mooted question, as I shall show in chapter xxviii. 

ties and magnitudes, at which ignorant Science, in all her pride, stands aghast and dumfounded. Species do start up 

with mighty vigor in the morning of life, and either dwindle by slow decay, or go out at a leap. Certain it is that 

species have divergent capacities, some more, some less; indeed, we suspect that the true idea of a species is a central 

form with a certain range of possible divergences.* And of every species, did we know the true limits of divergence, 

we might perhaps be able to draw a generic diagram.f Now, is it at all unreasonable to suppose that the early Adamic 

race might have possessed a greater and more sudden divergent power than now, and that, as it spread out from its first 

center into various climates and conditions, it might have early finished out its whole generic programme? If we are 

told that Science has no experience of any such thing, and therefore 'cannot know it,' we reply that there is no 

experience by which Science knows the contrary. She knows nothing about it, and must therefore hush into silence, 

and let history speak. Our maxim is not: The Bible is false unless Science can affirm its statements. Our maxim is: The 

Bible is true unless Science can incontrovertibly prove its statements false.\ If this superiority of plasticity in 

*This is equivalent to Morton's celebrated definition : "A primordial organic form"—with obvious, but limited, 

capabilities of variation. 

tDoes the author mean a" genetic" diagram? If not, the word "generic" is employed in an extra-scientific sense, and 

means the assemblage of varieties constituting the ensemble of a species; in other words, the group of varieties 

constituting different states of the species. But, under this view, I would prefer to say "a varietal diagram"; and in the 

next sentence would say "varietal programme," and thus remove ambiguity.

t This maxim is also mine, but it is an error to assert dogmatically that exegesis has in all cases reached the correct 

meanthe early Adamic race was real, we easily understand how the Negro early appears on the monuments, and how 

the palaeolithic man may have been both a son of Noah and an Eskim. 

"We suspect that the Africans in Africa are an eminently plastic population. There is on that continent an immense 

variety of colors and characters, indicating an intense susceptibility to climatic influences. There appears to be a rapid 

physiological variability,* and a tendency to abnormal specialties hardly belonging to the human species, except as a 

strange accident. There is a very great tendency to immense changes in language, especially where the alphabet is 

unknown. Fontaine has shown that two communities of American Indians, once speaking the same language, can, by 

separation, become unintelligible to each other in two centuries. It can be shown that African languages are still more 

variable,! so that in two or three thousand years all traces of identity may be lost. In physical characteristics the African 

tribes shade off into each other; in short, the 

ing of Scripture. I may deviate from popular interpretation, and yet accord with Scripture. It is also unfair to assert, 

constructively, as many carpers at science do — I say it without reference to Dr. Whedon — that he who disagrees 

with popular interpretation must be ranked with the enemies of the Bible. It is a timeworn fallacy, but always 

prompted by the instinct of self-love, that "He who opposes me or my opinion is the enemy of some great common 

interest which I profess to defend." This is the favorite "dodge" of those who have no arguments to present. 

*This statement seems to be founded on the existence of great physiological variations, ethnic divergences, and 

ignores what has been ascertained respecting the causes of these phenomena. 

f Is not this a little twist on logic? It can be shown, indeed, that African languages are still more variant, but as to 

variability, or aptitude to become variant, the result proves nothing. If the result is large, it may have proceeded from 

long continuance of the cause as well as facility of effectuation. 

variations of the African populations from the Adamic original may be only a question of time, and the question of 

time is only a question of plasticity. Our impression is that a great extent of time might be a convenience, but is hardly 

a necessity." 

The question which Dr. Whedon's recognized acumen brings into view is entirely reasonable, and demands scientific 

consideration. There are no conspicuous evidences of the unsoundness of his hypothesis. It may, indeed, be an opinion 

extensively entertained among scientific men. I cite the following passage from Topinard: * "It is quite clear that the 

variations of climate and conditions of life are very slight now in comparison with what they necessarily were 

formerly. The fact is, that man has not always known how to guard against the preponderating influence of external 

agencies, nor has he always been able to leave the country, under every change of circumstances. No new race, having 

characters other than those of the mixed races produced from crossing, has been created within our knowledge; and, 

moreover, everything compels us to believe that there was a greater tendency to change, at a remote period in the past, 

than there is at present; and this belief has found a support in the law of hereditary influence." The considerations 

presented by Topinard rest on a different basis from those of Dr. Whedon. Topinard holds to the high antiquity of the 

human species.f The "remote period in the 

* Topinard, Anthropology, p. 392. Very recently a similar suggestion has come to me from Rev. S. E. Bishop, of 

Honolulu. He says, in a letter of 12th April, 1879: "It has seemed to me that the fixed diversities of the races of men 

might be well accounted for by assigning their origin to the infancy of the" human species, when it "would have been 

plastic, and ready to assume extreme variations of type, such as would have been impossible at any later period."

t "Bones, on the other hand, have the inestimable advantage of past," to which he refers, would be entirely repudiated 

by Dr. Whedon. Indeed, he directly states that ''as far as our limited investigations extend, the law of permanence of 

types remains intact." Moreover, he is speaking of races who have made advancement from a primitive condition, in 

which man is at the mercy of circumstances, to a semi-civilized condition, in which protection and comforts have been 

provided for himself. This cannot apply to the Negroes of Africa. As to the greater flexibility or more rapid change of 

human organization in those remote periods, that even appears to be a subject of mere suggestion, and is not set down 

as a conclusion presumably established. The indications of "heredity" are always toward permanence of type; and a 

suggestion of a less rigorous application of the law in any remote time is quite gratuitous. Turning to the remarks of 

Dr. Whedon, it must be borne in mind that he writes from the standpoint of a short chronology and a definite 

circumscription of specific fluctuations. His argument divides into two branches: (1) All species, in the early periods of 

their existence, possess extraordinary plasticity; (2) The races of Africa still retain an extraordinary susceptibility of 

change. In support of the former proposition, he cites first the extreme longevity of the antediluvians, and notes the 

gradual abbreviation of their lives. If this were a strictly physiological phenomenon, I should think it implied 

extraordinary unsusceptibility 

presenting to us all that remains of ancient peoples, of which there are no longer any living representatives; some 

extending back to one and two thousand years, others to ten and twenty thousand, when the various types had become 

less changed." (Topinard, Anthropology, p. 206.) This refers only to the antiquity of primeval man in Europe, the 

oldest, perhaps, of whom any remains have come down to us. Lower races — that is, the human species at large,—he 

traces to a much higher antiquity, even into Miocene time. 

of change. This, in fact, is the definition of extreme longevity. The phenomenon truly implies a different rate of 

change from the present; but it is a slower, instead of a faster, rate. 

Next, he appeals to palaeontology, and mentions "mammoths and iguanodons and other horrible things." From this 

basis of alleged facts he infers that "palaeontology is full of its displays of plasticity and variation in animal life," and 

that "species do seem to start up with strange suddenness, and develop in forms and rapidities and magnitudes at which 

ignorant Science in all her pride stands aghast and dumfounded"; and that "species do start up with mighty vigor in the 

morning of life, and either dwindle by slow decay or go out in a leap." Dr. Whedon evidently is here contemplating 

the well known phenomena of sudden appearance and gradual or abrupt disappearance of specific, and even generic, 

forms; and his attention fixes itself on the grotesqueness and vegetative bulk of many ancient types. It is easy to 

understand how such phenomena may impress a mind which antecedently assumes that each species is a fixed type, 

the product of a special creation, and that all the facts of palaeontological history have been brought into view, so that 

we can base final conclusions on actually known and positive phenomena. But Dr. Whedon, resting on these 

assumptions, stands on very uncertain ground. It is, on the contrary, almost the unanimous opinion of biologists that a 

species is not a fixed type, but simply the present aspect of a line of organic development, destined to become 

something else in the future, as it was something else in the past. According to the prevailing view of a species, its 

youth, and even its birth, is an epoch impossible to define. It is always new in reference to that which it is, and is to 

become. It is always old in reference to what it has been. There is no opportunity to ground an hypothesis of 

extraordinary luxuriance and plasticity on a youthful condition. An organic form is always equally youthful, and 

always equally old. Those aspects of the organism which we call species must, of course, have their beginning, their 

progress and their end; and the transition may present every degree of suddenness or slowness, according to the nature 

of the conditions to which the organism always seeks a correlation. But still, though new as a putative specific form, it 

is old as an organism; there is no ground for assuming that the ever progressive organism receives a new installment of 

vigor or plasticity, at the moment science happens to descry it or describe it as a new specific type. I can discover no 

reason for positing a greater degree of inherent susceptibility at one epoch than at another. 

From Dr. Whedon's point of view, respecting the nature and origin of species, the objection to his hypothesis does not 

appear so great. And yet, even here, I should feel constrained to dissent. If this view allowed us to compare the 

lifetime of a species with the lifetime of an individual, there would be some ground for assuming that the impressible 

infancy and youth of a species must expose it, to an extraordinary extent, to the perturbing and constraining influence

of surrounding conditions. But the view places before us, with the utmost suddenness, a complete and matured specific 

form. A species is not a growth, and has no youth; it is a creation. It is created for the conditions under which it makes 

its advent. As conditions change, there is never a moment when it is so well suited to its environment as at first. There 

is never a moment when it does not experience a depressing and destructive warfare with circumstances. There is 

never a moment when its condition is not becoming more desperate. The time is always impending when the struggle 

for existence will terminate, and the species, more or less abruptly, will pass out of being. All this means that the vital 

forces possess a constantly diminishing residuum of strength to conserve the type of the species against the 

encroachments of external vicissitudes. It means that the sturdiness of the type is greatest when adjusted to the original 

conditions, and would then experience least tendency to variation, instead of greatest. 

In respect to Dr. Whedon's other preconception, that the work of palaeontology is substantially completed, and we are 

in a position to argue finally from apparent abruptness of organic advents, it remains to say that he takes a more 

flattering view of the achievements of "ignorant science in her pride" than the pride of science prompts her to entertain 

in her own behalf. If proud, she is not uplifted above a humiliating view of the magnitude of the unexplored field, and 

the incompleteness of her work in every field. She maintains, in opposition to Dr. Whedon, that appearances of abrupt 

advents are mostly illusory, and depend on the limitations of her knowledge. There was a time — probably when she 

was less proud — when she felt inclined to believe, with Dr. Whedon, that Nature had, indeed, established the breaks 

which now she believes to be merely subjective. She now regards them as breaches in the continuity of her knowledge, 

rather than in the continuity of events. She feels forced to this belief by the progressive disappearance of the breaks, as 

new discoveries are brought to light. Some old breaks have been completely closed up; some partially closed; and 

palaeontology has reached a stadium where it is safer to argue from the tenor of progressive discovery than to limit 

conclusion to facts already observed. I mean it is legitimate to base conclusions on facts which we expect to discover. I 

mean that a great inductive principle is worth more, in an argument, than the absence of a few desiderated links in the 

array of facts. Induction has no use if we must wait till every possible fact has been observed before we draw our 

inference. The inference, in this case, is to the absolute continuity of organization. And the corollary of the inference 

declares that sudden appearances are not new organizations of organic types, but new advents into the regions 

observed, or broken ends of the thread of our knowledge. We can no longer recognize these grotesque, and sometimes 

prodigious, forms, breaking suddenly on the vision of the palaeontologist, as new advents into existence; and cannot, 

therefore, base upon them any conclusion respecting the luxuriance and impressibility of youthful natures. There is, in 

short, no palaeontological proof or intimation that types of organisms possess susceptibilities of variation in any way 

correlated to the period of their duration. 

Dr. Whedon asserts that Science has made no observation opposed to the hypothesis of early plasticity of species. 

Science has well determined that the physical conditions of life are in continual progress of specialization, and that, 

accordingly, the law of correlation between organism and environment necessitates a constantly accelerated tendency 

of organisms to vary. The early periods of specific life, as of organic life at large, are less abundant in the conditions 

which demand divergence from a central type. As the earliest species, in the infancy of the world, enjoyed a wide 

range . 

without encountering causes of variation as pressing as those existing in later periods, so later species, in the infancy of 

their existence, found the conditions of life more favorable to permanence of type than they became in the culmination 

and decline of their specific lifehistories. Science has observed enough, therefore, to create the presumption that the 

less specialized environment of the youth of a species concurred with any superior vigor it might have possessed in 

retarding, instead of accelerating, the tendencies to vary. 

The second branch of Dr. Whedon's argument concerns an alleged plasticity of the human type, still manifested on the 

continent of Africa. This inference is grounded on the great variety of colors, characters and dialects found upon that 

continent. On these phenomena he predicates "an intense susceptibility to climatic influences" and "a rapid 

physiological variability, and a tendency to abnormal specialties hardly belonging to the human species, except as a 

strange accident."

The last sentence prompts me to observe that the extreme divergence from the Adamic type, seen in Africa, is not the 

only case of extreme divergence which his theory has to account for. There is the vast and remote continent of 

Australia, presenting even a greater divergence. There is New Guinea, and there is Tasmania, now stripped of its 

aborigines, in which we find exemplified perhaps the most extreme divergence in the whole field of humanity. There 

are the distant islands of Melanesia and Polynesia, with their wonderfully deiidamized types of men. Are all of these 

millions of peoples also characterized by an "intense susceptibility to climatic influences," and "a tendency to 

abnormal specialties hardly belonging to the human species"? I fear we shall have to change the old aphorism, 

Excejptio prdbat regulam to exceptio constituit regulam. 

Now, in reference to the physical discerptions of African tribes, it is apparent that they may be explained in two ways. 

The gradations between the Negro and the White represent stages in the transformation of the Adamic type into the 

Negro; or they represent hybrid mixtures of a comparatively fixed Adamic type with a comparatively fixed Negroid 

type. Now, if we view the gradations as stages in a slow transformation, how do we know that the progress was from 

the White to the Black, rather than from the Black to the White? I am ready to admit that some of the African varieties 

of race represent stages in a progressive transformation; but I hold that scientific evidence points toward a progress 

from the Black toward the White; and that we have no evidence of any racial tendencies toward general organic 

degeneration, as in a movement from the White to the Black. The evidence bearing on this subdivision of the argument 

I reserve for separate treatment.* 

To a greater extent African varieties have originated in hybrid intermixtures. In almost every case of a type variant 

from the Negro we are able to discover the foreign element, and to indicate where it exists in its purity. In many, 

tradition has preserved the memory of the first contact of races, and, in some cases, we know even the date of the 

occurrence. To illustrate: there is scarcely a doubt that the Nubians are an ancient Egyptian type, adulterated with 

Negro blood. Farther west, the dwellers in the Desert exhibit the mingled characters of Berbers and Negroes. On the 

east coast we have the Bishareen, the Hadendoa, and other tribes, who even 

* See the next two chapters. 

speak a corrupt Arabic; and some of them employ a more ancient Hamitic language, of three genders — the 

Tobedauic. Between the Blue Nile and the Atbara are other tribes speaking a corrupt Arabic. The celebrated Galla are 

as black as Negroes, but otherwise they are European. The Somali, near Bab-elMandeb, have woolly hair, but claim 

descent from the Koreishites of Mecca. Ethnologists incline to regard them as a mixture of Semites and Negroes. Since 

the fifteenth century they have advanced from the southern shores of the Gulf of Aden westward, so as now to spread 

over the greater part of the East African promontory. In the midst of the Soudan Negroes, the Fulbe possess a fair 

color and glossy hair, without decidedly Negro features; but they are continually mixing with Negro women, and 

losing their ethnical distinctions. The Fulbe are known to have been, in the seventh century, "cattle-breeders and 

hunters in the oases of Tauat, and in the south of Morocco." They are, therefore, probably "a hybrid people, of half 

Berber half Soudan blood."* The Makololos are intermediate between the Bantu Negroes and the Kaffirs. The 

Hottentots are a homogeneous race, presenting some reminiscences of remote connection with the ancestors of the 

Malay race. The tribes of Madagascar are a recognized Malay race, mixed with Negroes and Arabs. Such are examples 

of the facts touching the ethnography of Africa. It is impossible to go over the descriptions without being led to 

conclusions somewhat like the following: The primitive people of Africa were Negroid; their territory was encroached 

upon through the isthmus of Suez by Hamites — if not previously 

*Peschel, Races of Man, p. 467; Fried. Mttller, Novara-Expedition, Anthropologischer Theil Ethnographie, p. 97. 

by Turanians. The Hamites spread westward as Berbers, and southward as Nubians. Along their borders, hybrid 

connections with the Negroes gave origin to the Fulbe of the Soudan, and the historical Nubians and Abyssinians of

the Nile valley. Further mixture with the Negroes gave rise to the Bishari, the Galla, the Somali and other anomalous 

tribes which help to give the impression of "rapid physiological variability." Across the straits of Babel-Mandeb came 

Himyaritic Hamites, and effected other intermixtures. At later dates, the Joktanide Semites followed from Arabia, and 

increased the complexity of the ethnic comminglings. Some of these mixed tribes have pushed into the interior of 

Africa, but they are everywhere recognizable, as well by their languages as by their Semitic and Hamitic physiognomy. 

The untainted Negroes, as well as the untainted Hottentots, present such homogeneity as would be expected of an 

organic type in a state of nature, and exhibit local variations of only trifling extent, except in cases where it is known 

that hybridization has taken place. This, it seems to me, is the rational explanation of the diversified humanity of 

Africa, which modern ethnology forces upon us. The "immense variety of colors and characters," instead of showing 

racial instability, reveals only the racial stability which preserves its distinguishable identity, even in intermixtures of 

the most complicated kind. 

Suppose African populations to possess the easy plasticity which Dr. Whedon has inferred from varietal phenomena, 

would the Negro type have preserved its identity, as we know it has, for 4000 years? It is not admissible to assume a 

free plasticity of African humanity for the purpose of validating another assumption,— that of divergence completed 

within the space of 2000 years, in the face of the resistless conviction that, for the next 4000 years, that same humanity 

has remained sensibly as fixed as the topography of the continent. The only outcome is the conclusion that African 

ethnography is not as fluent as supposed, and that, consequently, no ground remains for the obsolete belief that the 

Negro had been differentiated from Adam in probably less than two thousand years.* 

As to the linguistic phenomena of Africa, it seems to me that Dr. Whedon is sailing directly in the teeth of current 

philological authority. Nothing is more imperishable than the roots of languages. The most splendid achievements of 

modern philology are exemplifications of the principle, and the proofs of it. A tribe may forget its ancestors and its 

country; it may modify its dialect till no longer intelligible to the parental stock; but it cannot destroy the living 

radicals of its speech. Intonations, vocalizations, suffixes and affixes may vary their quality, but no disguises can hide 

the central framework of the tongue. It requires but little modification of speech to render the speakers of two branches 

of a dialect mutually unintelligible; but twenty centuries have not rendered the Greek and the Sanscrit unidentifiable. It 

is by means of language, as well as of physiognomy, that ethnologists have disclosed the nature of the blendings 

among African peoples. And it is by means of language that they establish theêr 

* See the tables in chapter xiv, where, adopting the moderate Egyptian chronology of Lepsius, and the popular biblical 

chronology of Usher, the Negro is shown to have existed in Egypt 1037' years after Adam. 

sistence, rather than the evanescence, of racial characters.* 

It cannot be maintained that no general basis of linguistic affiliations exists in Africa. Great linguistic divergences 

have, indeed, resulted in Africa from the prolonged existence of its population. Abrupt transitions of dialects exist 

because, in the transformations of the population, connecting idioms have become extinct with the tribes that spoke 

them. It is not true, however, that real linguistic discontinuity has been observed. There is said to be a fundamental 

sameness in all the Negro languages of South Africa, as far as the Soudan. Peschel says: ''We find in the whole of 

South Africa, as far as the equator, with the sole exception of the languages of the Hottentots and Bushmen, closely 

allied languages, which all place the defining syllable before the principal root, and yet do not exclude the use of 

suffixes." f Any one who examines the subject will find, also, that a net-work of affinities runs throughout the dialects 

spoken by the 

* On this subject Dr. Whedon will be pleased to note the testimony of so conservative an ethnologist as Brace. 

"Modern scholarship," he says, "has been gradually approaching the conclusion that among all the tests of community 

of descent, in a given group of human beings, the best is the evidence of language, connecting with it also the 

testimony of history." (Brace, Races of the Old World, p. 15.) But see more particularly Steinthal, Characteristik der

hauptsachlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues, Berlin, 1860; Whitney, Language and the Study of Language, New York 

and London, 1867, and Life and Growth of Language, New York, 1875; August Schleicher, Darwin sche Theorie und 

die Sprachwissenschaft, Weimar, 1863. Dialects, it is true, may be violently suppressed or replaced; and this 

sometimes happens among savages, as among the West Coast Indians of North America. But when from any coercive 

influence a language has been changed, no change of racial characters is thereby implied. t Peschel, Races of Man, p. 

121. 16 

disintegrated Negro populations of the Soudan and its ethnic appendages of territory.* 

I believe that Dr. Whedon's suggestions cover the strongest predisposing considerations which can be brought forward 

in defense of the Hamitic origin of Negroes. At least, I know nothing else to which, by courtesy, the name of 

"argument" could be given, without exciting the sense of the ludicrous. I have read tirades and personalities and 

misrepresentations and denunciations; but these, like all similar irrelevances, disclose the desperate character of a 

cause, and thus furnish real arguments for the other side. I have indicated the means of meeting Dr. Whedon's 

suggestions; but I desire it borne in mind that the proof of the doctrine of Preadamites does not end here, nor rest here. 

It is a question of biblical interpretation. The word Adam comes from the Bible, and is employed in a certain sense. 

All we have to do is to ascertain the sense in which biblical writers employ the term. I have already shown that the use 

of the term all along implies — sometimes the narrative declares — that people existed on the earth who were not 

descended from Adam. The positive aspect of the argument is completed. The negative aspect has, with this chapter, 

been taken up. But it remains for the next two chapters to set forth the deepest and most immovable scientific 

objections to every form of the theory of the Hamitic origin of the Black races. 

If it can be shown that Adam, in the purview of the Bible, was not only a white man, but absolutely the first human 

being, then it will be shown that the Bible is contradicted by a mass of scientific evidence. If it can be shown that 

Adam, in the purview of the 

* See Fried. Mailer, Novara-Expedition, Ethnographie and Linguistischer Theil. 

Bible, was absolutely the first human being, then he was not a white man; and his epoch is removed from the era of 

Abraham by a chasm of years, in the presence of which our patriarchal chronology is ridiculous. All who are throwing 

obstacles in the way of a rational reconciliation of the Bible with recognized science are wearying themselves in an 

attempt to place an impassable gulf between the Bible and the common intelligence.

Chapter 16 

Negro Inferiority 

THE theory of the Hamitic origin of Negroes, Hottentots, Australians and Papuans implies that four races out of seven 

have experienced a degeneracy. This sweeping backward movement of the work of an all-wise and all-beneficent 

Creator is appalling to contemplate; and it is not surprising that theorists have existed who could deny the inferiority of 

these races with the same naivete as any other indisputable fact of observation. Judging from intercourse with friends 

of the Negro, of the noisy and denunciatory stamp, I should think a large body of "philanthropists" must exist who 

maintain that it is mere lack of opportunity which causes the Negro to seem inferior to the white man. "Consider how, 

for two hundred years, he has dwelt in bondage; see him worked, late and early, in all weathers; sheltered, like stock, 

in inclosures too open for comfort or health, and subsisted on 'sides' and potatoes from January to December. The laws 

have even made it a crime to teach him to read a newspaper, or the Holy Bible. Think of the hardships which he has 

endured, and judge whether they are not sufficient to have crushed all intelligence and moral principle and manly spirit 

out of a human being." But, my good friend, I was not proposing to discourse of the Negroes of the United States. I 

am thinking of Africa, the continental home of the Negro. Yet, since the American Negro is suggested, allow me to 

inquire how far the Negro has descended below his native condition by being brought into contact with American 

civilization? Has he been sheltered in a more storm-riddled hut, or clothed in scantier attire, or subsisted on a leaner 

diet? Or has he associated with more degraded savages, or learned to practice a more superstitious worship, or been 

deprived of a more cultivated society? The Negro, perhaps, is not, in America, what he would have been if left to his 

own mastery in the midst of civilized society. The condition of the northern Negro will settle this question. But has he 

not made more progress than his countrymen who were left behind? Can we appeal to the oppression of the American 

Negro as an apology for the condition of the Negro on the banks of the Senegal and the Congo? 

The Israelites were in "the house of bondage" two hundred and sixteen years; and it is not supposable that bondage in 

the rude infancy of the world, and in heathen Egypt, was less depressing than bondage during the last two centuries in 

a Christian country. But were the Israelites ever reduced to the mental and moral condition of the Negro? The 

literature, laws and religion of the Mosaic period will supply the answer 

That the Negro race is an inferior race I shall show by an appeal to anatomical, physiological, psychical and historical 

facts. I have already pointed out the salient characteristics of the Negro race. * Let me advert to those which establish 

his inferiority. Capacity of cranium is universally recognized as a criterion of psychic power, f No fact is better 

established than the 

* In chapter xi. 

t " The inferior races have a less capacity than the superior." "The cranial capacity seems to vary according to 

intellectual endowment." (Topinard, Anthropology, p. 229.) 

general relation of intellect to weight of brain. Welker has shown that the brains of twenty-six men of high intellectual 

rank surpassed the average weight by fourteen per cent. Of course quality of brain is an equally important factor; and 

hence not a few men with brains even below the average have distinguished themselves for scholarship or executive 

ability. The Noachites at large possess a mean capacity of 1500 cubic centimeters. The capacity among the Mongoloids 

is 1450* cubic centimeters; among the Negroes, 1360 cubic centimeters, and among the Australians 1276 cubic 

centimeters. The Noachites surpass the Negro 126 cubic centimeters, or 16£ per cent. Assuming 100 as the average 

capacity of the Australian skull, that of the Negro is 111.6, and that of the Teuton 124.8.

In respect to the cephalic index, or form of the skull in a horizontal projection, we find that all the lower races are 

dolichocephalic, and all the higher races are mesocephalic or brachycephalic. The index, for instance, among the 

Noachites, ranges from 75 to 83°; among the Mongoloids, from 71 to 90; among the Negroes, from 69 to 76; and 

among the Australians, from 71 to 71.5. The broadest Negro skull does not reach the average of the Germans; nor does 

the best Australian skull reach the average of the Negro. Mean relative breadth of skull is found to be associated with 

executive ability. 

Among Whites, the relative abundance of "crossheads" [having permanently unclosed the longitudinal and transverse 

sutures on the top of the head] is one in seven; among Mongolians, it is one in thirteen; among Negroes, it is one in 

fifty-two. This peculiarity is supposed by some to favor the prolonged develop- * This results from rejecting the 

anomalously low determinations of Eskimo, by Dr. Bessels. See p. 163. 

ment of the brain. In any event, it is most frequent in the highest races. This completer development of the osseous 

tissues in the Negro cranium is probably related to that density and thickness of ossification which enables the Negro, 

both male and female, to fight by means of butting; and to support hard objects and great weights on the top of the 

head. 

The amount of prognathism is another marked criterion of organic rank. One method of expressing this is by means of 

"auricular radii," or distances from the opening of the ear to the roots of the upper teeth, and to other parts of the head. 

Among Europeans, the distance to the base of the upper incisors is 99, but among Negroes, it averages 114. On the 

contrary, the average distance to the top of the head is, among Europeans, 112; but among Negroes, 110. The distance 

to the upper edge of the occipital bone is, among Europeans, 104; among Negroes, 104. These measurements prove 

that the Negro possesses more face, and particularly of jaws, and less brain above. Other measurements furnish a 

similar result; and show, also, that the development of the posterior brain, in relation to the anterior, is greater in the 

Negro. Prognathism is otherwise expressed by means of the "facial angle," or general slope of the face from the 

forehead to the jaws, when compared with a horizontal plane. Among the Noachites, the facial line is nearest 

perpendicular, giving an angle of 77° to 81°. Among the Negroes, it averages only 67°; among the Hottentots and 

Bushmen, 60°, and among the Australians, 68.° 

Among Negroes the forearm is longer, in proportion to the arm, than is the case with Whites. The same is true of 

anthropoid apes. The Negro's arm, when suspended by the side, reaches the knee-pan

within a distance which is only 4f per cent, of the whole length of the body. The white man's arm reaches the knee-pan 

within a distance which is 7i per cent. of the whole length of the body. This length of arm is again a quadrumanous 

characteristic. The Negro pelvis averages but 26£ inches in circumference; that of the White race is 33 inches. In the 

Negro it is more inclined, which is another quadrumanous character. It is also more narrow and elongated; and this, as 

Vrolik and Weber have suggested, corre

Fig. 43.—Profile view of the brain of the Orang-Outang. 

sponds to the dolichocephalous head (see Figs. 41 and 42). I present here views of the skeletons of an Adamite and of 

a Chimpanzee. Their contrasts are apparent at a glance. In every particular in which the skeleton of the Negro departs 

from that of the Adamite, it is intermediate between that and the skeleton of the Chimpanzee. 

The average weight of the European brain, males and females, is 1340 grammes; that of the Negro is 1178; of the 

Hottentot, 974, and of the Australian, 907. The significance of these comparisons appears when we learn that Broca, 

the most eminent of French anthropologists, states that when the European brain falls below 978 grammes (mean of 

males and females), the result is idiocy. In this opinion Thurman coin 

Fig. 44.—Profile view of the brain of the Bushman Venus. (See Fig. 11.)' 

cides. The color of the Negro brain is darker than that of the White, and its density and texture are inferior. The 

convolutions are fewer and more simple,

Fig. 45.—Profile view of the brain of Gauss, the mathematician. 

and, as Agassiz and others long ago pointed out, approximate those of the Quadrumana (see Figs. 43, 44 and 45). 

According to M. de Serres, the brain of the Caucasian, during embryonic development, presents in succession the 

conformations seen in the Negro, the Malay, the American and the Caucasian. This statement rests on excellent 

authority, but I am not aware that it has been confirmed. Its significance is apparent, in view of the established 

principle in physiology, that the embryonic characters in any vertebrate resemble the adult characters of other 

vertebrates lower in rank. Again, the retreating contour of the chin, as compared with the European, approximates the 

Negro to the prehistoric jaw of La Naulette, and to the Chimpanzee and lower mammals. Finally, the slenderness of 

the Negro arms and legs is also quadrumanous. This character is still more striking in the structure of the Australians. 

(See Fig. 12. This individual, however, is exceptional.)* 

In activity and capacity for prolonged and intense effort, the Negro is notably inferior. This point, however, has been 

sufficiently presented, f 

Psychically, I have spoken of the Negro to con siderable extent. In brief, he possesses a strong curiosity to gaze upon 

new sights, or even familiar ones; but it is the curiosity of the child; he has a feeble power of combining his 

perceptions and drawing conclusions. In abstract conceptions he is still more helpless; no American Negro has ever 

produced any original work in mathematics or philosophy; the imaginative and aesthetic powers are similarly dormant; 

poetry, sculpture, painting, owe almost nothing to Negro genius. "Never yet," says President Jefferson, "could I find 

that a black has uttered a thought above the level of plain narration; never saw an elementary trait of painting or sculp- 

* For a detailed comparison of the characteristics of the Negro and the Mediterranean, see Vogt, Lectures on Man, 

Lect. vii. t See chapter vi. 

ture."* In reference to this, Mr. James Parton says: "We cannot fairly deny that facts give support to the opinion of an 

inherent mental inferiority. It is ninety years since Jefferson published his 'Notes,' and we cannot yet name one Negro 

of pure blood who has taken the first, the second, the third or the tenth rank, in business, politics, art, literature, 

scholarship, science or philosophy. To the present hour, the Negro has contributed nothing to the intellectual resources 

of man. If he turns 'Negro minstrel,' he still imitates the white creators of that black art; and he has not composed one 

of the airs that have had popular success as Negro melodies." f 

These statements require slight qualification. Phillis Wheatley is said to have been a Negro poetess a hundred years 

ago, but her poetry, Parton says, was very inferior. She is not mentioned in Tyler's History of American Literature, 

which, however, ends for the present with 1765. I am not informed respecting the purity of her racial character. Miss 

Edmondia Lewis is a sculptress of considerable merit, but I am informed that she has the benefit of about fifty per 

cent, of Caucasian blood. It is also true that some of the more gifted Negroes possess a wonderful power of emotional 

eloquence, but I suspect that in all these cases some infusion of Caucasian blood exists, as in the case of the highly 

respected marshal of the District of Columbia, and one or two colored members of congress, and also 

* Jefferson, Notes on Virginia. 

t Parton, in North American Review, Nov.-Dec. 1878, p. 488. It is generally understood, in spite of Parton, that some of 

the melodies made so popular by the "Jubilee" and "Hampton " singers have had a truly Negro origin. Many of their 

songs, like those wailed from the throats of deck hands on the lower Mississippi steamers, possess a sweet and 

haunting weirdness which is far from Caucasian. 

a few colored pulpit orators. Nevertheless such qualifications do not invalidate the statement that "pure" African blood,

even under the influence of Caucasian civilization, has never achieved any valuable results in the realm of art. These 

statements have been made in reference to the American-born Negro. It is more appropriate to turn our attention to the 

Negro in his native haunts. 

The physical aspect of many native Africans gives them, beyond question, a decidedly beastly look. 

This has been remarked again and again. Professor Wyman says: "It cannot be denied, however wide the separation, 

that the Negro and Orang do afford the points where man and the brute, when the totality of their organization is 

considered, most nearly approach each other."* Here is Cuvier's de 

* Savage and Wyman, "Troglodytes Gorilla," Boston Journal Natural History, 1847, p. 27. 

scription of the Bojesman woman, known as the "Hottentot Venus" (See Fig. 11, page 72), who died in Paris on the 

29th of December, 1815, and whose life-size figure I have examined in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes: "She 

had a way of pouting her lips," he says, "exactly like that we have observed in the Orang-Outang. Her movements had 

something abrupt and fantastical about them, reminding one of those of the ape. Her lips were monstrously large; her 

ear was like that of many apes, being small, the tragus weak, and the external border almost obliterated behind. These," 

he says, after having described the bones of the skeleton, "are animal characters." Again, "I have never seen a human 

head more like an ape than that of this woman." In reference to the fatty protuberances of the haunches, he says: "They 

offer a striking resemblance to those which exist in the females of the mandrils, the papions, etc., and which assume, at 

certain epochs of their life, an enlargement truly monstrous." And yet Cuvier was the champion of the opposers of 

Lamarck, who thought he saw a genetic, as well as a physiognomic and osteologic relation between this woman and 

the Quadrumana. Here, again, is Topinard's description of the Hottentot physiognomy: "The nose is frightfully broad 

and flat, the nostrils are thick, very divergent and exposed. Their prognathism is generally enormous, though it varies. 

The mouth is large, with thick, projecting and turned up lips." 

The following is Lichtenstein's description of a Bojesman (Bushman): "One of our present guests who appeared about 

fifty years of age, who had gray hair and a bristly beard, whose forehead, nose, cheeks and chin were all smeared with 

black grease, having only a white circle round the eye, washed clean with the tears occasioned by smoking — this man 

had the true physiognomy of the small blue ape of Caffraria. What gave the more verity to such a comparison, was the 

vivacity of his eyes and the flexibility of his eyebrows, which he worked up and down with every change of 

countenance. Even his nostrils, and the corners of his mouth, nay, his very ears, moved involuntarily, expressing his 

hasty transitions from eager desire to watchful distrust. There was not, on the contrary, a single feature in his

countenance that evinced a consciousness of mental powers, or anything that denoted emotions of the mind of a milder 

species than what belong to man in his mere animal nature. When a piece of meat was given him, and, half rising, he 

stretched out a distrustful arm to take it, he snatched it hastily, and stuck it immediately into the fire, peering around 

with his little keen eyes, as if fearing lest some one should take it away again. All this was done with such looks and 

gestures that any one must have been ready to swear he had taken the example of them entirely from the ape. He soon 

took the meat from the embers, wiped it hastily with his right hand upon his left arm, and tore out large half-raw bits 

with his teeth, which I could see going entire down his meager throat."* 

The comparisons made between Africans and Quadrumana must not be understood as intended to imply human 

descent from Quadrumana. Entirely apart from questions of blood relationship, the morphological and physiognomical 

resemblances exist; and they are cited for the purpose of showing that, just as far as the African diverges from the 

style of a white man, he approximates the lower animals. 

* Lichtenstein. Travels in South Africa, Vol. II, p. 224. 

I have thus far confined myself chiefly to points of inferiority inherent in Negro and Hottentot personality. Let us turn 

to history, and consider the nature of the results which have proceeded from four thousand years of Negro existence 

and activity. We are apprised, from the Egyptian monuments,* that the Negro was in existence at least as early as the 

Sixth Dynasty, which, according to Lepsius, was 2967 b.c., and according to Strong 2080 B.c. At that date his race was 

numerous enough to be the object of hostile expeditions from Egypt; and powerful enough to confer honor upon 

conquest over him. The Negro race has consequently had national existence in Africa from 4000 to 5000 years. What 

has it accomplished? It has never yet invented an alphabet f by which the fugitive vocalizations of its lips could be 

fixed in a permanent record. It has not preserved one sentence of the history of four thousand years. It has written 

neither science, philosophy nor poetry. It has created neither. It has left us none of the productions of fine art.^: It has 

developed only some of the simplest of the useful arts.§ It has built no cities; erected no durable monuments; 

excavated no canals; transformed no topography, nor removed any natural obstacles to 

* See chapter xiii. 

t Unless the Veys, closely related to the Mandingoes (see note, p. 257) can be regarded as full-blooded. 

X The Bushmen are said to have painted the cliffs, from the Cape of Good Hope to beyond the Orange river, with 

figures of men and animals, in red, bronze, white and black colors; or etched them in light tints on a dark ground. 

These are said to have been done with great firmness of hand; and copies of them show a fidelity to nature equal to 

some of the Egyptian delineations. 

§ The Fantis on the Gold Coast, under European tuition, have made considerable progress in manufactures, and in 

learning to read and write (English). One or two of the Congo tribes is said to have acquired the art of ship-building. 

the efficient cultivation of the soil. It has organized only the rudest civil societies; and has often marked the 

administration of authority by oppression, cruelty and bloodshed. It has sold its own blood and flesh into slavery, and 

made a commerce of human merchandise.* It has organized no religious associations, nor risen, generally, in the 

practice of religious worship, above the grade of dancing, divination, idolatry and fetichism. It has founded no 

benevolent asylums, nor formed any charitable associations. Its life has been a continuous scene of personal selfseeking 

and public administration of the rule of brute force. It has been a struggle—to judge of the past from the 

present — whose constant aim was material comfort and bodily gratification. There have been organized communities 

and seats of justice and judgment: but these, in every instance, are the fruits of Caucasian blood. There have been

maternal devotion and filial love; but these, however beautiful and admirable, are only nature's indispensable 

provisions for the material well-being of the race.f 

* " Dahomey may perhaps claim the evil fame of being the most savage and cruel organized government on the face of 

the earth." Brace, Races of the Old World, p. 272. 

t Of the Mandingoes, however, it is stated by Brace (Races of the Old World, p. 267): "They possess well-ordered 

governments and public schools; their leading men can all read and write (the Arabic); agriculture has been carefully 

pursued by them; and, in manufactures, they are very skillful in weaving and dyeing cloth, and tanning leather, and 

working up iron into various instruments. Their merchants are very enterprising and industrious, and exercise great 

influence through northern Africa. In religion, the Mandingoes are zealous Mohammedans, though a few hold to the 

old pagan belief." They are described as having "a deep black color, woolly hair, thick lips, broad, flat nose and tall 

powerful frame, and a similar force of temperament and character." It is not impossible that exception should be made 

of this great nation. But their relig 

It cannot be said that this almost universal backwardness in all individual and social advances based on intelligence, is 

attributable to unfavorable circumstances. The conditions of civilization have been favorable. I doubt if it can be 

shown that any other continental area has been blessed with climate, soil, topography, and other adjuvants, equally 

favorable for human progress. The climate ranges from the warm temperate of the north to the warm temperate of the 

south. It has an equal distribution of the sun's annual heat over the parts lying north and south of the central line. No 

portion of the continent is given over to eternal frosts nor insufferable seasons. The genial sky spares its populations 

the forethought, labor and time of provision against severe and protracted winters. Over most of the continent, rains 

are adequate in supply and in distribution through the year. The vast interior, including nearly all south of the Sahara, 

is an undulating plateau, averaging 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea level, with numerous mountain ranges attaining 

10,000 to 16,000 feet. The tropical climate is, therefore, fairly attempered to human endurance — certainly 

ion and language imply close connection with Semites. They have, themselves, a tradition that they were derived from 

Egypt, and M. D'Eichthal has presented many analogies between their language and the Coptic. All the west coast 

tribes, it may be added, have been long under the influence of intercourse with Europeans. Such are the Mandingoes, 

Fantis and Ashantis, as well as the Kaffirs and Bechuanas of the south. The interior tribes, remaining in a state of 

isolation from foreign aid, have failed totally to attain even the lowest grade of civilization. The remarkable King 

Mtesa, of the Uganda, having his capital near the northern shore of Lake Victoria Nyanza, is highly eulogized by 

Stanley, and deservedly so — (Through the Dark Continent, Vol. I, chapters ix and xi); but he and his subjects are of a 

dark red-brown complexion, and are described in terms which do not apply to Negroes. They seem closely related to 

the Fulah and Nuba, and are undoubtedly a hybrid stock. 

to Negro endurance. Only the Sahara and Nubian portions suffer from intense heat. The climates are also salubrious, 

save portions of the low borders, especially on the west coast. Salt is plentifully distributed, with local exceptions. 

Copper exists in large quantities in the center of South Africa, and iron is more widely known. Diamonds are abundant 

in the district of the Vaal and Orange rivers, north of Cape Colony. Abundance of forest growths cover much of the 

interior; and farther from the equatorial line fine parks and pasture lands invite the presence of agriculture and herding. 

Great rivers drain the continent, which, after the passage of the falls, which occur on the borders of the great plateau, 

furnish navigable channels of communication between all parts of the productive interior. The navigable river and lake 

system is unsurpassed in extent by that of any country in the world. The mixed races have utilized these advantages to 

considerable extent. The delta of the Niger is much more extensive than that of the Nile. The Congo — the Mississippi 

of Africa — is from one to three miles in diameter, and discharges 2,000,000 cubic feet of water per second. The great 

lakes Victoria and Albert cover each about 30,000 square miles. Many other lakes of fresh water exist, which add to 

the resources of the interior, in the same manner as the great lakes of North America. The considerable elevation of 

these lakes, and the discharge of vast volumes of water, must supply to the regions between them and the sea level a 

surprising amount of water-power.

The native productions of Africa, suited to the wants of man, are quite numerous. The date palm thrives throughout all 

the desert regions, wherever a moderate supply of water can be had. It furnishes the bread of the desert, and supports 

not only man, but 

camel and horse. Wine is produced from the sap. South of the Soudan, the Baobab or monkey-breadtree takes the 

place of the date. Here abounds, also, the oil-palm. Other vegetable resources of the continent are the doom-palm and 

the butter-tree. There are two native cereals, Negro millet and Kaffir-corn, which supply farinaceous food. There are 

also the edible bread-roots and earth-nuts, which are adequate to supply the daily food of whole villages. Moreover, 

for thousands of years the way has been open as wide as the continent, for the introduction of the cereals of Asia. 

These, indeed, are not entirely unknown to the natives; and maize, the manioc root and sugar cane, have been 

introduced from America by Europeans, and have begun to spread toward the interior. 

The domesticable and useful animals of Africa are not inconsiderable in number. Perhaps the ninetyfour species of 

Quadrumana peculiar to Africa are more noisy and curious than useful. The continent is well stocked with fur-bearing 

animals, whose skins, if not needed by the natives, would be valuable for export. The quagga and the mountain zebra 

represent the horse family in the southern parts; while Burchell's zebra is widely scattered over the plains as far as 

Abyssinia and the west coast; and the aboriginal wild ass is indigenous to northeastern Africa. The domestic horse has 

not been introduced into inter-tropical Africa. The single-humped camel, or dromedary, is employed over all north 

Africa; and the Indian buffalo has also been introduced in the north. Other native bovine and ovine species are 

extensively distributed, while Africa is the peculiar country of the antelope and the giraffe. Lastly, the African elephant 

ranges abundantly from Cape Colony throughout central Africa; but, strange to say, it has never been, like the Indian 

elephant, domesticated. The only gallinaceous bird is the guinea-fowl, but this exists in great abundance; and 

partridges and quails are distributed over most parts of the continent.* 

It is pertinent to inquire if such a continent, so outfitted with resources for food, clothing, transportation, 

intercommunication and commerce, is a situation suited to cramp the manhood of an indigenous race. Are these the 

conditions under which the grade of humanity would sink from the level of Adam and Noah to that of a naked blackskin, 

driveling in filth and wretchedness on the banks of the Congo or the Zambesi; while under the climatic 

vicissitudes of western Asia and Europe, the same type has risen perpetually through all grades of advancing 

civilization? The indigenous African has nowhere taken more than the first steps toward civilization. Some 

* Mr. Henry M. Stanley has given a catalogue of articles observed by himself in one of the common markets of 

southern-central Africa. It was at Nyangwe 1 on the upper Lualaba. The following is the list: "Sweet potatoes, yams, 

maize, sesamum, millet, beans, cucumbers, melons, cassava, ground-nuts, bananas, sugar-cane, pepper (in berries), 

vegetables for broths, wild fruit, palm butter, oilpalm nuts, pine-apples, honey, eggs, fowls, black pigs, goats, sheep, 

parrots, palm-wine, pombe' (beer), mussels and oysters from the river, fresh fish, dried fish, white bait, snails (dried), 

salt, white ants, grasshoppers, tobacco (dried leaf), pipes, fishing nets, basket work, cassava-bread, cassava-flour, 

copper bracelets, iron wire, iron knobs, hoes, spears, bows and arrows, hatchets, rattan-cane staves, stools, crockery, 

powdered camwood, grass cloths, grass mats, fuel, ivory, slaves." Here is a list which might satisfy the wants even of 

the luxurious. It is true that many of these articles have originated in the superior knowledge of the Arabs, who hold 

intercourse with the lake region; but all the vegetable and animal productions are reared in the country, and nearly all 

are indigenous. (Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, Vol. II, chap. iv. 

of the tribes have, indeed, learned the art of producing iron; but it is the greater wonder that they have not discovered 

in it the resources of civilization. It has been said the African elephant is incapable of domestication; but its close 

affinity with the Asiatic species renders the statement incredible. Indeed, the conviction already exists in south Africa 

that it is '' equally well adapted for labor, and there can be no doubt, would be as easily tamed as his Indian congener. 

That this is the case, is amply proved by the docile and submissive state into which both male and female elephants"

have been brought in zoological gardens and menageries.* Nor have any of the equine species been domesticated. 

Some domesticated animals introduced from Asia are known to the most advanced Africans, but no native species has 

ever been domesticated. 

In America, under conditions certainly no more favorable, a semi-civilization had grown up indigenously. The only 

cereal native to America is maize, and until the occupation by Europeans no Asiatic cereal was accessible. The 

principal edible roots of America are the mandioca and the potato, while the feeble llama, and vicuna are the only 

native animals capable of domestication as beasts of burden. These have been utilized from time immemorial. In 

contrast with Africa, the civilization of the Nahuatl nations of Mexico, the Quiches of central America, the Mayas of 

Yucatan, and the Quichuas of Peru, had become, both in respect to intellectual and industrial advances, and judicial, 

moral and religious conceptions, almost a stage of true enlightenment. 

Our wonder at the stationary savagism of virgin 

* Nature, No. 473, Nov. 21, 1878, p. 54, referring to The Colonies and India, of Nov. 2. 

Africa is greatly enhanced when we reflect on the relations of civilized peoples to that continent. Ever 6ince the dawn 

of Accadian civilization in western Asia an open highway of communication has existed between the continents — not 

to speak of actual communications across the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. More than this, Asiatic civilization entered 

Africa, and spread itself over the valley of the Nile and the Mediterranean border, at a period so remote as to be 

obscured by the twilight of human history. It brought with it the cereals and finally the domesticated animals of Asia. It 

introduced the arts of industry and the rudiments of the sciences. It established a religious cult which was 

monotheistic, and remarkably pure and elevated. It opened commercial intercourse, not only with Arabia, Palestine and 

Babylonia, but with the tribes of the upper Nile and the Libyan region. It engaged in extensive mining operations, not 

only in the Sinaic peninsula, but in the far southern countries of the Nah&i (Negroes). It worked quarries of limestone 

and granite on an enormous scale. It tilled the soil in the presence of the most forbidding obstacles to be found in 

habitable Africa. It sent warlike expeditions not only into Asia Minor and Assyro-Babylonia, but into Nubian Ethiopia; 

and even the armies of a civilized people inevitably sow the germs of civilization among barbarians. The Negroes have 

been in contact with these people for 4000 years, and save through infusion of blood they have not yet learned the first 

lesson in civilization. Are these the people whom adverse circumstances have crushed from the grade of Adamic 

civilizability, and forbidden to rise, even while the hands of Egypt and Libya, and Assyria and Arabia were 

outstretched to lift them up? The thought is inadmissible. Constitutional, aboriginal, deep-seated incapacity is the only 

explanation of these amazing phenomena. 

We may further contrast the immobility of the Negroes in conflict with civilization, with the facile and eager 

improvement of the once savage and anthropophagous Maories of New Zealand. The Maories belong to a type 

sometimes distinguished as Polynesian. It is perhaps a hybrid of Malay and Papuan; they reached their islands about 

1400 A.d., and the English took possession in 1769. In 1853 they had made such advancement that Governor Sir 

George Grey reported that "both races already form one harmonious community, connected by commercial and 

agricultural pursuits, possessing the same faith, resorting to the same courts of justice, joining in the same public 

sports, standing mutually and indifferently to each other in the relation of landlord and tenant, and thus, insensibly, 

forming one people." Mr. Edwin Norris says: "They now (1855) vie with Englishmen in many of their pursuits; they 

are expert riders, and breeders of horses; they understand perfectly how to make a bargain; they erect buildings, 

cultivate land, and form good roads far beyond the limits of the English settlements. The more opulent among them 

become ship-owners, landlords and millers, the latter being especially a favorite occupation; the poorer people make 

roads, till the ground, tend cattle, build houses and ships, fish for whales, and navigate ships generally. According to 

good authority, the most regular, clean and orderly of all the coasting vessels plying between Auckland and the Bay of 

Islands, is owned and manned wholly by natives, and is preferred by the public, as a conveyance for passengers, before 

all others. They resort readily to the English law courts, becoming even annoyingly litigious, and their favorite 

conversation is said to be 'religious and political discussion, and the general news of the day.' "* Yet even the Maories

are described as quite inferior, intellectually, to Englishmen. 

I need only refer to the familiar history of the Sandwich Islands to further enforce the significance of the comparison. 

In fact, all Polynesia is fairly represented by these examples. 

It would be proper to raise the question whether the Negro is capable of appreciating, desiring and conserving the 

benefits of civilization. The inertia of the Negro in a state of servitude; his scarcely improved condition, and certain 

diminution in numbers, since enfranchisement in the United States; his political and social career in Hayti f; his 

massacre of the agents, and destruction of the agencies of civilization in St. Thomas; his helplessly subordinate station 

in the northern states of our Union and in Canada; his indifference to the benefits of civilization in Liberia p, the 

persistent vitality of Voudouism among American Negroes, in the close environment of a high civilization, and the 

Negro's facile relapses, as in the Congo 

*Edwin Norris, in Prichard's Natural History of Man, II, p. 453-4, 4th ed. See also Sir George Grey, Poems, Traditions 

and Chants of the Maories, Wellington, 1853; Arthur S. Thomson, The Story of New Zealand, 2 vols., London, 1859. 

f'The stagnant condition of the West Indian colonies since the emancipation of the Negro, and the commercial descent 

of Hayti since it became an independent Negro state, evidence the tendency of that race not merely to suspend 

progress, but also to relapse into their barbarous habits of apathy and indolence." (M'Causland, Adam and the Adamite, 

pp. 73-4). 

X"The history of that colony [Liberia] does not justify bright expectations of its future." (Dr. O. P. Fitzgerald, in 

Nashville Christian Advocate, Jan. 18, 1879, p. 8)., 

nation, into a state of abject barbarism, as soon as the props of foreign aid are removed, constitute a set of facts for 

grave reflection. If the Negro is constitutionally incapable of availing himself of Caucasian civilization, how many 

lives shall we sacrifice, and how many millions shall we lavish, in attempts to foist it upon him? 

I hope I shall not be set down as unfriendly to the Negro. Should any person deem me so, I extend to him all the pity 

deserved by ignorance and error. I shall not feel hurt. I have no special occasion for unfriendliness toward the Negro. 

The world would be better if he were an efficient factor in enlightened humanity. The country would be better if he 

were an elevating and progressive influence instead of a depressing and barbarizing one. I should like to see him 

capable of coping with his white rival, or at least of profiting by his example and aid. I will do all possible to make 

him so; but the work must be prosecuted with a clear view of the facts; we defeat the end by proceeding blindfold. I 

am not responsible for the inferiority which I discover existing; I am only contemplating a range of facts which seems 

to prove such inferiority. I am responsible if I ignore the facts and their teaching, and act toward the Negro as if he 

were capable of all the responsibilities of the White race. I am responsible, if I grant him privileges which he can only 

pervert to his detriment and mine; or impose upon him duties which he is incompetent to perform, or even to 

understand. 

The similar inferiority of other Black races it would not be difficult to prove. The measurements already given show 

the Australian to possess an organism quite inferior to that of the Negro. In intelligence he is said to be so low as to be 

unable to count over four or five.* Of the Ae'tas of the Philippines (see Fig. 14), De la Geronniere says that they gave 

him the impression of being a great family of monkeys; their voices recalled the short cry of these animals, and their 

movements strengthened the analogy. Biichner says that the toes of these savages, who live partly in grottoes, partly on 

trees, are "very mobile, and more separated than ours, especially the great toe. They use them in maintaining 

themselves on branches and cords, as with fingers." According to Biichner, "the language of the savages of Borneo is

ather a kind of warbling or croaking than a truly human mode of expression." The Veddahs of Ceylon, says Sir 

Emerson Tennant, "communicate among themselves almost entirely by means of signs, grimaces, guttural sounds, 

resembling very little true words or true language." "The Dokos of Abyssinia," according to Krapf, "are human 

pygmies; they are not more than four feet high; their skin is of an olive brown. Wanderers in the woods, they live like 

animals, without habitations, without sacred trees, etc. They go naked, nourishing themselves by roots, fruit, mice, 

serpents, ants, honey; they climb trees like monkeys. Without chief, without law, without arms, without marriage, they 

have no family, and mate by chance, like animals; they also multiply rapidly. The mother, after a very short lactation, 

abandons her child to itself. They neither hunt nor cultivate, nor sow, and they never have known the use of fire.f They 

have thick lips, a flattened nose, little eyes, long hair, hands and feet with great nails, with which they dig the soil." 

*This is contradicted, since it is said the Australians use eighteen different terras in enumerating their children. 

(Journal of the Anthropological Inst., 1872). 

t Other authorities declare that no tribe of men is ignorant of the use of Are. (See Peschel, Races of Man, p. 144). 

Some of the American tribes remain at the lowest point of degradation. This is the case with the Fuegians; and the 

Botecudos of Brazil have been often cited. Of the latter, Lallemand says, "I am sadly convinced that they are monkeys 

with two hands." 

In the presence of a body of facts like those cited in the present chapter, it seems impossible to doubt that Nature has 

established a wide range of gradations among races, which cannot be obliterated by any influences having less than 

secular duration. It seems, beyond all rational question, that the aborigines of Africa are vastly inferior to the 

Mediterranean race; and that, consequently, if they and the other Black races are the posterity of the biblical Adam, the 

world has witnessed a general scene of degradation and retrogression which almost reflects on infinite wisdom and 

beneficence.

Chapter 17 

Do Races Degenerate? 

THE degeneration of races is imaginary. But the old theory of Ham's responsibility for the Negro race and its inherent 

savagism has rendered it necessary to assume that a frightful degeneracy has taken place. The improbability of such 

degeneracy is a powerful biological argument against the theory, and affects fundamentally and equally all the forms 

of it set forth in a previous chapter. I shall endeavor to condense my reasons for denying racial and continent-wide 

deterioration. 

I. PROGRESS THE LAW OF ORGANIC LIFE. 

1. It is implied in the derivative origin of species. The prevailing opinion among biologists favors the derivative origin 

of organic species. If this view represents the truth respecting the advent of successive forms upon the theater of 

organization, it implies that progress has been the law of life. The theory claims that all higher forms are genetically 

descended from lower. It claims that every existing form is historically traceable backward to some form which 

represents the humblest condition of organization. Few claim that the data are at hand for assuming any remoter initial 

point; but it is generally agreed that the broad application of the principle of continuity, on which the doctrine of 

evolution is based, requires that the humblest organization should have proceeded from an inorganic condition of 

matter. 

Now, from a particle of animated jelly to a man, or to an ape, is a vast stride forward; and the doctrine of derivation, 

when unreservedly interpreted, requires that such a march should have been made. If that doctrine is true, general 

progress, as the resultant of all organic movements, is the first implication. Undoubtedly there have been pauses and 

regresses. General progress in the organic world has always been coordinated with progress in the inorganic world; 

and has proceeded step by step with it. It is a fundamental fact of organization, that it is always suited to the conditions 

of its existence. This is implied in its existence. But the physical state of the world is always changing; and in this the 

conditions of organic existence are involved. As material changes are necessarily progressive, tending always toward 

higher differentiation and specialization, it follows that the coordinated types of organization must continually increase 

in complication, as a general law. But because, locally and temporarily, physical conditions may remain unchanged, it 

follows that coordinated organization may locally and temporarily remain unchanged. Indeed, since, in the forward 

progress of physical processes, there may occur temporary and local relapses to conditions once passed, it follows that 

coordinated organization may experience local and temporary retrogression. The history of organization exhibits these 

threefold phenomena. But the progressive tenor of that history is as manifest as the progress implied in the principle of 

derivation. 

2. The law of progress is involved in the fiat theory of specific origins. This theory declares that each species is an 

original and new beginning. It declares that every new beginning is the result of special creative effort. For my own 

part, I maintain that the derivative theory implies the perpetual exertion of extramaterial power which is tantamount to 

creation.* In respect to the dependence of organic life upon creative power, the derivative theory is certainly not less 

theistic than the first theory. But assuming that the fiat theory represents the truth touching specific origins, it implies 

none the less a march of progress through the history of past life. 

I have stated already that the condition of the world in respect to organic life has been constantly in course of progress 

through geologic ages. Of this we have the assurance of all geological observation. The nature of this progress has 

been ever-increasing specialization of the terrestrial surface. At the dawn of organization the sea covered all. As there 

was one aspect, so there was one climate and one set of conditions. One species could dwell in every latitude and

longitude. No diversity of circumstances demanded diversified powers or diversified adjustments. The first organisms 

were as undifferentiated in their natures as the conditions to which they were appointed. But when the continental axes 

began to emerge, the homogeneity of the sea was disturbed. Ocean currents split off from the great tidal swell. There 

were shallow waters and deeper waters; there were sun-heated land exposures, which generated atmospheric 

movements; there were gusts of wind, and sudden and local storms; there were fresh waters and salt. Every habitat 

presented conditions more complicated. New creatures were demanded, with more diversified adaptations and 

capabilities. They 

* See the present writer's views in Reconciliation of Science and Religion, pp. 144, 155, 224, etc.; The Doctrine of 

Evolution, pp. 104123; Transactions of the Albany Institute, Feb. 2, 1875; Methodist Quarterly Review, April 1877. 

were necessarily higher creatures. Grade of organization is measured by number of relations. 

So, as the continents grew, pari passu the conditions of organic existence became more diversified, and organism was 

subjected to ever new exigencies. The older, more homogeneous and less versatile organisms were discharged from 

service, and new recruits were perpetually mustered upon duty, possessed of greater alertness and versatility of 

endowments. Organic progress was necessary. The world, otherwise, could not improve without becoming 

depopulated. Whether the ages intervening between Eozoon and Humanity were filled by the ranks of ever advancing 

types or not, we know that man is here, and that he could not have subsisted here at first. This means progress. The fiat 

theory cannot deny progress without stultifying the Creator. 

3. Progress is implied in the educability of intelligence, and in its power over nature. I shall not claim intelligence for 

the lowest orders of animals; but the time is past when all intelligence can be appropriated by man. Wherever 

intelligence exists, the cognitive faculty is acquiring knowledge and treasuring it in memory. Acquired knowledge may 

exert only an invisible influence over the acts of creatures below man; but if intelligence exists in them, it does not 

exercise its normal and distinguishing function unless it helps them to lessons which alleviate all future conditions. 

Perpetual exercise confers strength and facility. So, whatever is effected by feeble intellect is more largely and more 

perfectly effected by later strengthened intellect; and so the individual advances. Every grade of intelligence confers 

some degree of dominion over nature; every new lesson of experience learned qualifies the being better to brave the 

adversities of his situation. So each creature, so far as it possesses an educable intelligence, grows in mastery over 

circumstances; until, as in man, it creates the conditions of its own existence. Intelligence implies progress. 

4. The law and the fact of progress are revealed in organic history. I have just argued that progress must have been the 

fact. I now remind the reader that it was the fact. The pages of palaeontological science are written over with the 

chapters of that progress. There have been pauses and retral movements, which, as I have said, the local and temporary 

pauses and relapses in the march of physical changes must necessitate; but, on the whole, progress has been the 

zealous purpose which has actuated the history of organization. It is needless to rehearse the convincing facts; they are 

spread out on the pages of every text-book and elementary treatise which undertakes to unfold the events. 

5. The law and the fact of progress are revealed in human history; this is an educational progress. We know nothing in 

man of that organic progress which signalizes the flow of geologic events. Man's relative duration upon the earth, as 

far as known to us, is so nearly a point that his material parallelism with the course of organic change is inappreciable. 

Man, as known from the oldest caverns, or most hoary monuments, was organically the man whom we discuss to-day. 

* But we have witnessed the progress of his mind. In man, the intelligence becomes so large a factor that the 

acquisitions of the individual 

* Some increase in cranial capacity is noticeable when we compare modern skulls with those from the tombs of 

ancient Greece and Egypt, or even from the Parisian catacombs which contain skulls of the Middle Ages.

attain a conspicuous and potent influence. In man, the faculty of speech opens the opportunity for commerce in ideas 

and experiences. In man, the knowledge of one becomes the knowledge of the world; it is by man, too, that nature is 

brought under subjugation, and every element and every condition is made to minister to some need devised by a 

tireless genius. So man's progress results not more from his inherent aptitude to advance than from his suppression of 

the physical obstacles to advancement. We look back over the records of man, and learn that this commanding and 

self-sustaining power over Nature has been acquired by progressive steps. Man himself is the most instructive and 

most magnificent example of the law and the fact of progress. 

II. DETERIORATIONS ARE PARTIAL AND ABNORMAL. 

It is time to make an important discrimination which has been generally overlooked. We must distinguish between 

structural degradation and cultural degradation. Structural degradation would be the converse of structural 

improvement. This consists in increased specialization of parts, in reduction of the number of similar parts, in caudal 

abbreviation, and in increased cephalization, or subserviency of the organs to demands emanating from the head. It is 

often accompanied by an obsolescence of peripheral parts, a restriction of the animal to narrower geographical and 

elemental range, and always qualifies to execute with greater adeptness and efficiency the principal and accessory 

functions which characterize its class modification. Structural advance would accordingly diminish the number of 

points of detailed resemblance to orders below, and increase the number of points of detailed resemblance to orders 

above. Structural degradation would be a transformation from the more specialized to the less specialized; from higher 

affinities to lower affinities. I venture the assertion that the conception of such a transformation does violence to an 

irrepealable law of organization. I know of no instance of such degradation; I feel justified in affirming, on inductive 

grounds, it has never taken place. 

But the inferiority of the Negro is fundamentally structural. I have enumerated the points in his anatomy in which he 

diverges from the White race, and have indicated that, in all these particulars, he approximates the organisms below. 

Now I hold it to be the edict of Nature that no type of organization, having once entered the portal of a higher life, 

shall be permitted to retreat. I read such edict in the principle of continuity which dominates in Nature; I read it in the 

nature of the actual successions of organic forms, and I read it in the observed facts of the living world.* It follows that 

what the Negro is structurally, at the present time, is the best he 

*The critical reader will expect some qualification, or at least explanation, of the general statement that structural 

improvement, under the norm of nature, is never reversed. In a certain sense, every specific type which has passed the 

meridian of its life is in process of decadence. This decadence, however, is not a return toward a condition of inferior 

differentiation of parts. It arises from a continuance of differentiation and specialization and obsolescence of 

peripheral parts beyond the limit of best adaptation to the environment. It arises from the unhealthy condition thus 

superinduced, which arrests the full vigor of the nutritive and reproductive functions, and ends in dwarfage, sterility 

and extinction. Meantime there is no diminution in complexity of structure. Professor A. Hyatt has indeed instanced the 

return to the straight form of the chambered cephalopod, in the declining ages of the life of this type, as an example of 

the recurrence of youthful simplicity of structure. This phenomenon is to be fairly considered. It remains has ever 

been. It follows that he has not descended from Adam. 

Cultural deterioration is totally different, under every aspect. It means a loss of knowledge, and all which knowledge 

has gained. It may mean a loss of bodily power, and the advantages which such power had won. It may mean a loss of 

prowess and position and prestige, and a subjugation to ruder and harder conditions. Such losses are liable to fall on 

individuals, on villages and tribes and whole districts of people. They may result from malaria, deluges, fires, 

earthquakes, storms, droughts, insects, vegetable pests or wild beasts. They may result from wars, cruel oppression, 

banishment, fatigue or sorrow. Whatever robs intellect and emotion of their free activity, saps the sources of individual 

and social culture. Whatever restrains the free action of the physical powers, or diminishes the healthful forces of life, 

deprives the individual and society of some opportunity for accumulating psychical results. With diminished

knowledge, restrained activity, torpid livers, deadly fear, stinted supplies, come torpid minds, blunted sensibilities, 

religious superstition, shrunken bodies, grim visages — in short, a depraved culture. 

to be shown that it is paralleled by events in the declining stages of other types; if it is not, it furnishes no ground for 

an inductive inference, and we must probably seek an explanation under the principle which I have enunciated. The 

trilobites retained all their complexity of structure to the epoch of their disappearance. The crinoids were certainly not 

diminished in complexity during the Mesozoic ages, and those which survive to our times are partly of complicated 

structure, and partly to be regarded as simple types persistent since Palaeozoic time. The declining ganoids are not less 

complicated than those of the Devonian age. I think it will appear, generally, that senescence and decay of types are 

not accompanied by any recurrence toward the structural simplicity and comprehensiveness of relations from which 

they primitively arose. 

Ethnological narratives abound in exemplifications of the truth of these statements. The miserable Fuegians, driven to 

the cheerless and sleety shores of Patagonia; the Dyaks, smitten with apprehension and hived in the inhospitable wilds 

of Borneo; the natives of some of the west-coast districts of Africa, where they breathe from generation to generation 

an atmosphere heavy with miasm, are examples, among many, of the depressing and deteriorating influence of adverse 

conditions of existence. Dr. Whedon * has cited from Brace f an extreme instance of this kind. Brace quotes from 

Movel,| who cites from Dr. Yvan a description of certain "Portuguese" in the peninsula of Malacca: "'In the space of 

half a century, perhaps, religion, morals, tradition, written transmission of thought, are effaced from their 

remembrance. The most hideous idleness and absence of all wants are substituted for enjoyments acquired by labor. 

This degradation presents itself under its characteristic forms: stunted growth, physical ugliness, want of life among 

children, obtuse intelligence, perverted instincts, progressive successions of sickly transformations, reaching, as a final 

result, to the extreme limits of imbecility.' This last degenerative form appears strikingly in the descriptions of Dr. 

Yvan, and we cite his own words. 'There exists,' says Dr. Y., 'in the environs of Malacca, in the direction of Mount 

Ophir, a little hamlet situated in the midst of the jungles. The inhabitants of this hamlet are in a frightful state of 

destitution; they do not cultivate; they live outside of all social laws, having neither priest to marry them, nor cadi, nor 

judge, nor 

* Whedon, in Methodist Quarterly Review, July 1878, p. 566. 

t Brace, Races of the Old World, p. 473. 

| Movel, Traiti des Degenerescences, p. 413. 

mayor to regulate their differences. Their dwellings are a kind of cabins made of reeds, covered with the leaves of the 

palm-tree; and their only industry consists in going into the woods to search for the wax produced by wild bees, in 

washing sand, and in gathering the resin which runs down the trees. 

"'The three or four men that we found in the hamlet were lying down aside, smoking coarse maize cigarettes, and 

chewing the siri, like the women. Every one was naked, or wore very little clothing. The complexion of the children 

was almost white; that of the men and women, soot-color. They had thick lips, large black eyes, straight projecting 

noses, and rough long hair. They were all small and thin. One would have said that this population passed without 

transition from infancy to the decline of manhood; youth seemed not to exist for these unhappy people; their eyes were 

hollow, and the skin withered. 

"'Our guides, who were Malays, addressed some of the women, asking them how they named their village, where were 

their husbands, etc. But after hearing their replies, they declared to us that they could not comprehend perfectly what 

they had said, on account of a great many words that were not Malayan. The priest who accompanied me descended

from his horse, approached them, and discovered that the language they spoke was a simple mixture of Malay and 

Portuguese. 

"'This language itself was the most real expression of the sad mental state of these unhappy people. They knew neither 

who they were nor whence they came. The names by which they were called represented no family recollection, for 

they lived rather promiscuously. The idea of time was above their weak conception, and most of them made 

themselves remarked by such brutishness that their visitors could obtain no reasonable reply even to the most simple 

questions.'" 

"If half a century can produce such a degradation, what," asks Dr. Whedon, "can a thousand years accomplish?" 

The foregoing narrative was reproduced by Dr. Whedon with a view to supporting the theory that Negroes are only 

degenerated Adamites. I subjoin a few comments. 

1. Though these people are designated "Portuguese," it is sufficiently obvious that they represent a very bad mixture 

with one of the native races; and, like mixed breeds everywhere,* "retain all the vices and none of the virtues" of their 

parents. Here were a few Portuguese blended with a large mass of barbarous humanity. The "little hamlet" probably 

presented the original barbarous stock, deteriorated as hybridity generally deteriorates. Manifestly, some unnatural and 

perverse influence was at work. No normal exercise of the bodily functions ever dulls the intellect to such an amazing 

extent as Dr. Yvan describes. To have retained no recollection of their ancestors; to have lost all the common 

sentiments of society and morals, is to fall far below either the Malay or the Portuguese. 

2. The deteriorating influence had been long at work. Dr. Yvan states that the Portuguese had "lived in the midst of the 

Malayan population, with which they have been for a long time allied.'''' It is true that in the extract quoted from 

Brace, the degradation in question is represented to have taken place "in the space of half a century, perhaps." 

* See chapter vi. 

But Dr. Yvan, in another portion of his account, states that "their fathers were the companions of Vasco da Gama and 

Albuquerque." Now, Vasco da Gama died in 1525, and Albuquerque ten years earlier. 

3. It would seem that some conclusions were drawn without sufficient data. The people of this hamlet were strangers; 

and yet the narrator, after a few minutes of amazement, seems qualified to speak of customs which could fall under 

observation only after a sojourn of weeks. 

4. The degradation of these villagers was cultural. Mental and bodily distress, according to the account, was 

consuming all their energies, and shriveling their intelligence. It does not appear, however, that in any of their 

anatomical characters they had begun to approximate the Negro or the Malay Orang-Outang. You may go into the 

remote districts of our western territories; or, better, into the secluded regions of some of our southern states, where the 

soil is poor, the school-house and the post-office remote, the comforts of civilization inaccessible, refined society 

unknown, and whisky in plentiful supply, and there witness the early stages of a very similar cultural degradation; and 

that without the deadening influence of barbarous blood, and in spite of the inevitable sight and sound of civilized life. 

But under no such conditions does the cranium shrink materially in capacity, or assume a dolichocephalous form. 

Never, except as inherited, does Negroid prognathism develop, or the arm or the heel lengthen, or the pelvis become 

more oblique.

A little attention will show that all the alleged cases* of degradation are cultural rather than struc- * Many other cases 

of degradation are cited by Brace, who seems desirous to find the causes of racial inferiority in circumstances tural; 

and that, consequently, they are casual and remediable. They are, therefore, radically unlike the inferiority of the 

Negro, both in being non-structural and in being non-congenital. 

Finally, I desire to remark that not even cultural degradation ever becomes race-wide and continentwide. It is only a 

secluded community, or a perverse and desperate family, or a ship-company of mutineers, or, at most, a tribe hemmed 

in by impassable barriers of some kind, and bound fast under the dominion of some depraving influences. A Great 

Race, with a vast and fertile and salubrious continent to roam over, has never been smitten on all its borders. Malarial 

districts may depauperate a province or a tribe. Wars and pestilence, or other afflictions, may reduce other districts to 

distress and mental poverty. But the great continent is ever an open asylum, where the great bulk of the race will be 

free to seek the best conditions of existence. Under such conditions, it will always display its normal attributes, and 

develop into the social state for which it has been destined by the endowments of Nature. 

For such reasons as the foregoing, I am induced to believe that racial regress would be in conflict with a law of 

Nature. It is a conception which has never been realized in fact. It is a theory originated by the 

rather than in blood. See also Moor, Notices of the Indian Army, p. 49; Roger Curtis, Account of Labrador; Proyart, 

History of Loango, Congo, etc.; Reisen um die Welt, Leipzig, 1875, Vol. I, p. 554; Robertson, History of America, Vol. 

I, p. 537, etc.; Prescott, Conquest of Peru, Vol. II, ch. vi; Wilson, New History of the Conquest of Mexico, p. 33; 

American Exchange and Review, Vol. XX, p. 77; Bleek, Journal of the Anthropological Society, Vol. I, p. 102; 

Monteiro, Angola and the River Congo, New York, 1876. But on the philosophy of degeneracy see Tylor, Primitive 

Culture, Vol. II, pp. 93, 305, 323, 324, and Early History of Mankind, ch. vi. 

exigencies of an ethnological dogma once supposed founded on the statements of Scripture, but which does not bear 

the united scrutiny of the sciences, nor vindicate its validity by an impartial appeal to the biblical authority on which it 

pretended to rest. I hope I have now succeeded in showing: 

1. The structural and cultural inferiority of the Negroes as a race; and, by inference, the similar inferiority of the other 

Black races. 

2. The very high improbability that these races have undergone a degeneracy from Adam. 

3. The unanimity of the Bible and Science in the declaration that the Black races — most unquestionably the Negroes 

— are not the descendants of Ham, nor of Noah, nor even of Adam. 

I might rest the discussion at this point. I have pursued both the positive and the negative aspects of the argument — 

presenting the direct biblical and scientific proofs of the existence of Preadamites, and the untenability of the theories 

which trace the Black races to Noah or even to Adam. My thesis is proved; but it is natural now to look around and 

survey the relation in which we are placed toward other truths and other theories. Though the consequences of a 

demonstration cannot be recognized as evidence either affirmative or negative, every intelligent person is interested in 

the consequences; and their consideration forms a most appropriate sequel to the demonstration. I invite the reader's 

kind attention, therefore, to some discussions collateral with the doctrine of Preadamitism.

Chapter 18 

Theological Consequences of PreAdamitism 

THE important conclusions attained in the last chapter, if based on good evidence, correctly argued, ought to create no 

uneasiness. It is no disgrace to the past to be convicted of errors of judgment. It is a disgrace to the present to continue 

to defend the past after conviction of error. If the final conclusion is based in sound science, and represents the truth, it 

is demonstrably a divine truth, and cannot collide with any other divine truth. In the present case, we have the 

satisfaction of knowing that statements accepted as verbal utterances of divine truth very clearly point to the same 

conclusion. No conceivable motive, therefore, exists for continuing to call the Negroes the sons of Ham; or continuing 

the attempt to squeeze their history into the space of four thousand post-diluvian years; or persisting in the glaring and 

hopeless inconsistency of declaring their broad racial divergence to have been achieved in the first third of their raceexistence. 

If this conclusion disturbs widely accepted beliefs, it is evident, prima-facie, that those beliefs ought to be disturbed. In 

the light of the conclusion, they are beliefs in falsehood, and the maintenance of them discredits both the individual 

and the common creed. I may add that Science, as such, feels no concern over such disturbance. Adjustments to 

dogmatic faith are the work of those who undertake to defend the faith. It is still true that every well adjusted nature 

must feel an interest in the relations of scientific conclusion to a system of belief connected with the supreme welfare 

of our conscious being. I shall venture, consequently, to offer a word of suggestion to such as hesitate over the 

doctrine of Preadaniites, because it seems to interfere with the "plan of salvation." 

1. If we discover it true that Preadamites existed, it makes no difference in the facts concerning the salvation of man. It 

was always true, however we believed, and however it affected man's redemption. Perhaps man was saved all the time 

under a system which recognized preadamitism. If the Negro has ever been provided for, his position is not changed 

by our getting a correct view of his ethnic relation to our own race. 

2. That the Negro has all along been a subject of salvation is proved, if we can accept his testimony, by the avowed 

consciousness of thousands of the race. 

3. That he has all along been a subject of salvation is testified by hundreds of religious teachers who have led him to 

repentance and witnessed the phenomena of a changed life, and passed judgment on the relations of these phenomena 

to the "plan of salvation." According to the testimony of these witnesses, the Negro is demonstrably embraced under 

that "plan," whatever we may believe in respect to his precedence of Adam in the genealogical line; so that the field is 

free for any belief which seems best in accord with the evidences; there is no danger of robbing the Negro of any 

spiritual privilege. To these facts might be added the a priori presumption that the Supreme Being would not effect 

provision for Adam's salvation, and leave Adam's father and mother completely neglected. 

4. Preadamitism does not mean plurality of origins. It does not even mean plurality of species. The last is a distinct 

question which may be decided either way. Preadamitism means simply that Adam is descended from a Black race, 

not the Black races from Adam. This leaves the blood connection between the White and Black races undisturbed. It 

affirms their consanguinity. It accounts for their brotherhood. It is consistent with their common nature and common 

destiny. All these relations stand unchanged whatever view we take of the remotest end of the genealogical line. 

5. Preadamitism does not exclude the current conception of Adamic creation. It admits that Adam was "created," but 

substitutes for manual modeling of the plastic clay the worthier conception of origination according to a genetic 

method, and thus embraces the Adamic origin under an intelligible method of production so sublime and significant as

to include the whole world of organic beings. Nor must the method be conceived as necessarily, not even as possibly, 

self-operative. However incapable restricted science may be of passing behind the facts of observation, that higher 

perception, which is a function of reason, clearly discerns in derivative origins the perpetual presence and potency of a 

power which is in matter, but does not belong to matter. The derivation of Adam from an older human stock is 

essentially and literally the creation of Adam. 

6. Why, under this view, may not the Negroes have been as much embraced in the plan of salvation as Noah or 

Abraham? Orthodoxy holds that the atonement was retroactive at least 4004 years; why not a few thousand years 

farther? If it reached Adam, the remotest ancestor to whom the Jews could trace their lineage, why is it prohibited to 

presume that it reached the little-divergent ancestry to whom Adam was probably able to trace his lineage? Did the 

limitations of Hebrew knowledge limit the flow of divine grace? 

I think it is recognized by not a few "sound" theologians, that preadamitism does not interfere with current views of 

the catholic scope of the redemptive "scheme." Dr. Whedon, already quoted so often, says: "All evangelical 

theologians admit that the justifying power of Christ's death so had a retrospective effect, that sin was forgiven and 

men saved before the atoning event. So both the law given to Adam, and his transgression of the law and penal death, 

had also a retrospective effect. Over Preadamite men there had been no law; and whatever wrongdoing men committed 

had not the character of sin, for 'sin is not imputed where there is no law,' and death had not the character of penalty 

for sin. But in and by Adam law and sin entered into the world, and penal death by sin; and so death passed upon all 

men, Adamites and Preadamites alike, for all have not only done wrong, but sinned. It is not necessary to maintain that 

Paul personally knew or held the fact that Preadamites existed and were overspread by the power of Adam's sin, any 

more than he knew that Americans existed, and were so influenced. Paul, by inspiration, stated the principles that 

covered the whole human race, without claiming to know how extensive the human race is, whether geographically or 

chronologically. The unity of the race is thus unity of Nature, a unity in the moral identification with Adam, and a 

unity in the atoning power of the death of Christ."* Dr. Whedon does not profess to 

* Whedon, in Methodist Quarterly Review, Jan. 1871, pp. 154-5. He returns to the subject, with similar reserve, in 

Methodist Quarterly Review, July 1872. These remarks are made in view of M'Causland's adopt this reasoning, though 

he could not present it more cogently if he did. He, however, prefers it to M'Causland's treatment of the same subject. 

This line of argument, as I shall show (in chapter xxix), is borrowed from Peyrerius by an English writer, from whom 

Dr. Whedon frames his abstract. 

On a subsequent occasion Dr. Whedon writes as follows: "Why not accept, if need be, the Preadamic man? If Dawson 

admits an Adamic center of creation, why not admit, if pressed, other centers of human origin ? * The record does not 

seem to deny other centers in narrating the history of this center. The atonement, as all evangelical theology admits, 

has a retrospective power. It provides, as St. Paul says, 'remission for the sins that are past'; that is, for those who lived 

and sinned before Christ died, and who received remission from God, in anticipation of the atonement. It was. thus that 

Abraham was justified by faith through the Christ that had not yet made the expiation. The atonement thus may throw 

responsibility and propitiation for sin over all past time, all terrene sections and all human races. So, too, the sin of 

Adam may bring all past misdoings of earlier races under the category of sin and condemnation; that is, under the 

inauguration of a system of retribution which otherwise would not have 

polygenistic preadamitism. With still greater propriety may they be urged in view of the monogenistic preadamitism of 

the present work. 

* This means plurality of origins, and consequent "plurality of species." My views are less "heretical" than these. But 

even the recognition of distinct human origins would not exclude humanities from the relation of mutual brotherhood. 

All would still be the creations of a common Father, who must be conceived to entertain equal regard for all the moral 

intelligences which he has called into being.

taken existence. Some theologians have held that the atonement throws its sublime influence over other worlds than 

ours; why not, then, over earlier human races? Here, as often elsewhere, Science, that seemed to threaten theology, 

does but open before it broader and sublimer elevations. It contradicts our narrow interpretations, and reads into the 

text worlds of new meaning. With this provisional view we have not the slightest misgiving as to the effect of the 

demonstration of the Preadamic man upon our theology." * Dr. M'Causland, an equally orthodox divine, writing on 

this subject, says: "Redemption extends from the highest heaven to the lowest hades — from Abel and Enoch and 

Noah to 'the spirits in prison,' who were not of Adam's race. No Preadamite, or descendant of a Preadamite, is 

excluded by the Apostle's statement (Romans v). The redemption of Adam's race, who have incurred the penalty of his 

disobedience, does not prevent the redemption of those who have passed through the valley of the shadow of death 

unaffected by the transgression of Adam . . . Re- * Whedon, in Methodist Quarterly Review, April 1878, pp. 369-70. 

This is well said; this is bravely said. Would that Dr. Whedon's words possessed the authority of a pope of 

Protestantism. While Dr. Whedon stands with trenchant blade and merciless determination upon the citadel of religious 

faith, he is too shrewd to be fooled by the shriveled old ogre of "Orthodoxy," who comes in the garb of Christianity, 

begging to be defended from the assaults of common sense. Dr. Whedon is one of the noblest exponents of intelligent 

theology, and though his mouth is not wholly cleansed of bitterness generated by doses of recent science, it is very 

apparent that the doses have been taken with intelligent resoluteness, and are acting most beneficially upon his system. 

To drop the figure, his judgment and susceptibility of conviction possess a greater degree of elasticity than most men's 

of half his years. May he long live to be an example to younger men, of well-balanced and equal fidelity to religious 

faith and rational conviction L demption is no more dependent upon the lineal descent of all mankind from Adam, than 

it is dependent upon their lineal descent from Abraham, the 'father of the faithful."'* "The doctrine of a Preadamite 

creation enlarges the sphere of God's mercy, and enlightens our conceptions of the divine scheme of salvation; and the 

believer should learn to welcome it as a new and interesting page in the history of the dealings of a good and gracious 

Providence with the creatures he has made." f 

Dr. Whedon very correctly suggests, in one of the passages quoted, that if the redemptive plan could reach distant 

worlds, it could reach a more remote ancestry than Adam. I do not perceive how the force of the logic can be resisted 

—the less, as Preadamic generations supplied the very blood which flows through the veins of the Adamic stock; while 

the populations of other worlds have with us nothing but an intellectual and moral community. A theology which has 

borne with the suggestion that redemptive grace reaches throughout a universe cannot, without selfstultification, recoil 

from the suggestion that it embraces all the human populations of a single world. In this view I feel particularly 

interested in showing what were the reasonings, in this connection, of a most intelligent and estimable divine, 

connected with the Methodist Episcopal Church South. Bishop Marvin was a man with whom I had the honor of a 

personal acquaintance; and it gives me pleasure to acknowledge the esteem which was inspired by his broadly 

intelligent christian faith. Bishop Marvin 

* M'Causland, Adam and the Adamite, pp. 298-9. See also The Builders of Babel, pp. 321-2. t The Builders of Babel, p. 

323. 

was the author of a work * the principal aim of which was to magnify the plan of redemption by tracing its provisions 

to other spheres of existence. In some preliminary sections of a philosophic character he opens the way by dropping 

some sentiments which might well be commended to the consideration of certain persons who honor themselves in 

magnifying his worth. "When rational conjecture," he says, "is in harmony with the Bible, it need not be over-timid, 

nor the imagination itself restrain its rising, if it keep within the empyrean of revelation." f In approaching the 

discussion of the central thesis, he makes such utterances as the following: 

"What if it should appear that the same supreme expression of love, that has our world for its first object, is too full 

and ample to be confined within this limit, and overflows upon the universe?"^:

"It can certainly be no matter of surprise if we discover that this purpose [of the Creator in redemption] contemplates a 

result beyond the destiny of one world. Indeed, we should rather expect to find it a central fact, reaching, in its effect, 

the utmost limit of being, in space and duration.''''% Would not this be a provision for the poor Preadamites? 

"From this intimate connection of angels with the history of the atonement, from first to last, I raise a presumption — 

and claim for it only the value of a presumption — that they are, in some way, personally involved in its results. || 

"Now, can it be that the Word, in this its last and most precious meaning, is an utterance to man 

* E. M. Marvin, The Work of Christ, Saint Louis, 1867, 16mo, p. 137. 

t Op. cit, p. 10. § lb., p. 74. 

t Op. cit, p. 70. || lb., p. 78. 

alone, to one class only of his intelligent creatures? No, no, no! it is fully articulated to the remotest places of his 

empire. Its meaning and melody are to charm all ears, and enrapture all hearts in all 'the worlds' he has made, in 'all the 

ages to come.'"* Would Bishop Marvin, after putting his signature to this passage, declare that our consanguineous pre 

adamites are necessarily excluded, while the inhabitants of distant Neptune are cordially invited in? 

"If new worlds are hereafter to be made,—if, after the last judgment, new races of intelligent beings are to be created, 

there must be, we may suppose, some method of bringing them under the power of that influence which proceeds from 

the cross." f New races, "after the last judgment," would not only be as remote from Christ as Preadamites, but they 

would necessarily represent a distinct origin, on another planet, and in another cycle of cosmical existence. If the 

atonement could avail for a distinct species, removed by some aeonic interval, why not for a people connected with 

"the redeemed" by the brotherhood of an unbroken continuity? 

"This revelation of God in Christ is made primarily for man, but ultimately, also, for all worlds."X Now, as 

Preadamites were men, it was made for them. 

Parallel with these views of Bishop Marvin may be cited those of Dr. Chalmers, || the tenor of which is shown in the 

following passage: "Now, though it must be admitted that the Bible does not speak clearly or decisively as to the 

proper effect of redemption being extended to other worlds, it speaks 

* lb., p. 125. t lb,, P, 129. % lb., p. 137. 

[ Chalmers, Astronomical Discourses, Discourse IV, Amer. ed., p. 134. 

most clearly and most decisively about the knowledge of it being disseminated among other orders of created 

intelligence than our own," etc. 

Hugh Miller expresses the opinion that the efficacy of redemption was existent from the beginning of the physical 

world. "Redemption is thus no afterthought, rendered necessary by the fall, but on the contrary, part of a general 

scheme, for which provision has been made from the beginning; so that the divine man, through whom the work of

estoration has been effected, was, in reality, in reference to the purposes of the Eternal, what He is designated in the 

remarkable text, 'the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world.' " * 

Sir David Brewster, in considering the relation of the redemptive plan to the populations of other worlds, explicitly 

recognizes the retroactive and limitless efficacy of the Redeemer's death. "When our Saviour died," he says, " the 

influence of his death extended backward in the past, to millions who never heard His name, and forward in the future, 

to millions who will never hear it. . . . Their Heavenly Father, by some process of mercy which we understand not, 

communicated to them its saving power. Emanating from the middle planet of the system, because, perhaps, it most 

required it, why may it not have extended to them all — to the planetary races in the past, when 'the day of their 

redemption had drawn nigh,' and to the planetary races in the future, when 'their fulness of time shall come?' "f 

Eighty years ago, Rev. Dr. Edward Nares, in a work of much learning, endeavored to show that the words Ouxuv/iilTj, 

Obpavoq, Koa/xuq, (Mundus, Orbis, etc.) 

* Miller, Foot-Prints of the Creator, Amer. ed., 1857, p. 326. t Brewster, More Worlds than One, Eng. ed.. 1874, pp. 

166-7. 

"refer to a universe of worlds, and that the atonement was made for the creature generally."* The same opinion is 

maintained by Bishop Porteus, who thinks it "evident from Scripture, as well as analogy, that we are not the only 

creatures in the universe interested in the sacrifice of our Redeemer."f 

My own opinion respecting the unimportance of all theological questions arising in connection with this or any other 

scientific discussion was expressed by Dr. Bentley, nearly two hundred years ago. "Neither need we be solicitous," he 

says, "about the condition of those planetary people, nor raise frivolous disputes how far they may participate in 

Adam's fall, or in the benefits of Christ's incarnation."^: 

I might proceed here to bring together the suggestions arising from my study of this subject which bear upon the 

interpretation of the earliest documents of Genesis, in those passages referring to man. This, however, has been done 

to a sufficient extent in chapter xi. The chief exegetical conceptions admitted by me are the following: In the first 

chapter of Genesis, the word ADaM is so employed that we may understand it to specify mankind in general, or only, 

as a proper substantive, the name of the first man in Hebrew genealogy. In this most ancient of Hebrew documents I 

am inclined to think the word is employed only as a common substantive, to signify man. But the same word, 

nevertheless, in the later documents, becomes the proper name of that particu 

* Nares, E\

The statement that the "Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground" is shown by chemical analysis to be strictly 

true; but it does not imply that Adam was moulded by hands, or that he was called into existence from the condition of 

"dust" in a single day. Adam was a ruddy white man, possessed of the higher range of faculties characterizing the 

Mediterranean race. He was wholly uncivilized, but developed, in his posterity, a quick aptitude for social 

improvement. The first man, on the contrary, had been dark-colored and entirely savage. 

In no sense of the term was Adam a primitive man. He appeared after the race from which he divaricated had lived 

many thousands of years, and attained the results of long experience and culture. It is quite true, then, that the biblical 

picture of the antediluvians is not a picture of savage life; but it is no more a picture of the condition of the first 

generations of humanity ages before Adam, and affords no ground for the claim that the state of the primitive man was 

not one of abject savagism. 

In speaking of the naming of the beasts by Adam, we have the Hebrew method of saying that the names by which they 

became known were bestowed by a primitive ancestry. The formation of woman from a rib of Adam is simply an 

allegory which expresses woman's close relation to man and her dependence upon him, and man's reciprocal 

attachment to her. 

In course of time, Cain, for his sin, was banished from Eden. He went eastward and married a daughter of a 

Preadamite, violating the law of caste, whose breach by the alliance of the "sons of God" with the "daughters of men," 

is mentioned as a mark of primeval wickedness. Cain, among the Preadamites — Mongoloids or Dravidians — built 

up a city and developed a secular civilization. 

The principle which I have eliminated from the use of ADaM enables us to understand that the "daughters of men," 

so-called, were Adamite women; and the "sons of God" were Preadamite men. We now learn that the Flood was sent 

as a punishment of the Adamites; and if they were all destroyed except Noah and his family, the populations of 

Preadamites remained dispersed widely over northern and eastern Asia. 

The family of Noah were floated to a mountain called Ararat; but it is extremely doubtful whether the mountain so 

named in modern geography is the real Ararat. The focus of Noachite dispersions seems to have been located farther 

east. The Noachites "journeyed from the east" to reach the plains of Shinar; and the general conclusion of modern 

scholarship makes the Bolor or Belourtagh (the Berezat of the Zend-Avesta and the Merou of the Indians), on the west 

of Kashgar, the site of the biblical Ararat, and the Plateau of Pamir the seat of the earliest post-diluvian civilization. 

Journeying westward, they reached the "plain of Shinar," and there laid the foundations of the first historical cities. 

The biblical moral unity of mankind, whether it implies necessarily their genetic unity or not, is fully provided for by 

the monogenous origin of man under the present scheme of Preadamitism. 

After the preceding arguments, analogies, testimonies and exegeses, it must appear probable that the doctrine of 

Preadamitism is the consistent outcome of both scientific and biblical study. I incline, therefore, to the opinion that 

rational credence will not suffer any serious strain by concluding that the "orthodox" outcry against the doctrine of 

Preadamites is merely the shriek of a child's alarm which has not yet embraced the opportunity to take a survey of the 

situation.

Chapter 19 

Genealogy of the Black Races 

THE plural origin of mankind is a doctrine now almost entirely superseded. All schools admit the probable descent of 

all races from a common stock. The ancient opinion, and that commonly held under the popular interpretation of 

Genesis, conceives all other races as descended from the Adamic stock, which is generally regarded as possessing the 

ethnological characters of the present Mediterranean race. My own view, which, in this respect, is that probably 

entertained by derivationists generally, regards the Adamic stock as derived from an older and humbler human type. 

This view differs from the "orthodox" view only in inverting the terms of the succession. Both views recognize the 

reality of some genealogical tree for mankind. Those who hold that the White race, the consummate flower of the tree, 

has served as the root from which all inferior races have ramified, may select their own method of rearing a tree with 

its roots in the air and its blossoms in the ground. I shall put the tree in its normal position. 

From some humblest conceivable type of humanity, as a primitive stock, the diversified ramifications of the human 

family have ascended. It is impossible to affirm that any representatives of the primitive men still survive. It may be 

presumed, however, speaking generally, that the lowest human races preserve most of the characteristics of primitive 

humanity. Still, detached fragments of races, but slightly advanced, may have been hemmed within a range of 

conditions so hostile to advancement as to have arrested the normal progress which the main body of their race 

proceeded to achieve. This is in accordance with the facts of biological history at large. These outlying fragments of 

races may, therefore, be the best representatives of past conditions. Many instances which may belong to this class 

might be enumerated. Among them are the Dyaks of Borneo, the Congos of Africa, the Fuegians and Botecudos of 

South America, the Aetas of the Philippines, and the Ainos of the Kurile Islands. These displaced debris of races and 

tribes, like ethnological fossils, possess, many times, a profound interest, and furnish us with links of connection 

between well marked and widespread types of mankind. Great care must be exercised, however, to eliminate all cases 

of real degradation below any normal condition in the past life of the race. 

It is obvious that a genealogical tree of mankind must give expression to a natural classification of human types. 

Conversely, a true classification must indicate the arrangement of the genealogical tree. What are the more and less 

fundamental grounds of distinction among human types is a question not fully settled by ethnologists. The color of the 

skin and the character of the pilous system are conspicuous and available criteria. The former has often been made the 

fundamental basis of classification; it is so in the system of Qnatrefages; but modern ethnologists generally hold it in 

diminished esteem as a taxonomic datum. I am inclined to believe, however, that color possesses more significance 

than its seemingly capricious distribution in some cases would permit us to suppose. The character of the hair was 

made the basis of classification by Bory de St. Vincent, who divided all mankind into two divisions designated 

Ulotrichi, or those with frizzled hair, and Liotrichi (or Zissotriehi), those with smooth hair. This fundamental division 

has been accepted and extended by Professor Huxley,* who notes four subdivisions based on color, viz: "Leucous," for 

people with fair complexions and yellow or red hair; "Leucomelanous," for those with dark hair and pale skins; 

"Xanthomelanous," for those with black hair and yellow-brown or olive skins, and "Melanous," for those with black 

hair and dark-brown or blackish skins. These color-characters, combined with the form of the head, give the following 

fundamental classification: 

Httxlet's Classification Of Races.

The names of stocks known only since the fifteenth century are put in italics. 

Professor Haeckel,f also, lays much stress on characters derived from the hair. Among the Ulotrichi, he regards the 

distinction of woolly-haired (Eriocomes) and tuft-haired (Zophocomes). Among the Liotrichi, 

* Huxley, Critiques and Addresses, p. 153. t Haeckel, Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte, xxiii Vortrag, especially the 

table, p. 605, 4th ed. 

he also extends the application of the method by distinguishing the straight-haired (Euthycomes, as Mongoloids) from 

those with wavy locks (Euplocams, as Dravidians and Mediterraneans). 

In the following, which attempts to be an affiliated arrangement, color and hair are made the basis of primary 

distinctions. The subordinate groupings are merely conjectural, and are based on well-known relationships in general 

anthropological characters, checked by linguistic affiliations. In this arrangement, the Brown races are assumed to be 

Adamites. This assumption, as before stated, is very questionable, and is not set down as a conclusion. If we regard 

them as Preadamites, it becomes only necessary to transpose the word "Adamites" in the table, to a position after the 

Dravidians. 

AFFILIATED CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF MANKIND. 

(Based on Character of the Hair.) 

FIEST MEN: 

Uloteichs, 

Eriocomes, 

Negroes, 

Kaffirs, Bantu Negroes, 

Soudan Negroes. 

Lophocomes, 

Tasmanians,

Hottentots, 

Fijians, 

Papuans. 

LlOTEICHS, 

Euthycomes, 

Preasiatics, 

Adamites? 

Premongoloids, 

Premalays, 

Malays, 

Malayo-Chinese, Chinese, Prejapanese, Altaians, 

Northern Asiatics, 

Hyperboreans, 

Americans, 

European Troglodytes. Euplocams, 

Australians, 

Dravidians, 

Noachites. 

After much consideration of the subject, I am convinced that no classification based on the hair will represent the 

genetic relations among the races and sub-races. An affiliated classification must be based on the sum of the 

characters, and must be checked by a careful observance of linguistic relationships. I have elaborated an arrangement 

on this basis; and, having first presented it for convenience of reference, I will proceed to explain the grounds of my 

conclusions. The notation at the left is for use in connection with the "Chart of the Progressive Dispersion of 

Mankind." *

* The following table is perhaps more detailed than the present discussion requires; but as the principal aim is to show 

the probable genetic affiliations of leading types, and the results of my 

AFFILIATED CLASSIFICATION OF MANKIND. 

(Based on the Aggregate of Characters.) 

FIRST MEN: 

Peeaustealians. 1 AUSTRALIANS: 2a I. Bushmen (transitional). 2b II. HOTTENTOTS: 3a Kaffirs (transitional). 

3b 1. Bantu Negroes. 

(1) Eastern: Zanzibarites, Mozam 

biques, Betchuans. 

(2) Interior. 

(3) Western. 

Bafans or Fans. Bundas. 

Congoes, northwestern 

tribes. 

3c 2. Soudan Negroes. 

(1) Ibo, (2) Nuffi. 

(3) Joloffers: (a) Mande, (b) Odshi, 

(c) Ewhi. (4) Ghanas, Sonrhay, (5) Hausa, Masa, (6) Bournous, (7) Baghirmi, (8) Dinka. 

Shillook (transitional). 

Fundi (including Sennaars, Nubas, Berthas).

own studies are not elsewhere accessible in tabular form, I prefer to let the table stand unabbreviated for convenience 

of future reference. It is intended to aid the comprehension of the whole discussion on the genetic affinities and 

primitive dispersion of the races of men. 

4a III. Tasmanians (transitional). 4 Fijians (transitional). 

4 PAPUANS: 

4a 1. Australian Papuans (Melanesians). 

(1) New Guineans, (2) Pellew Islanders, (3) New Irelanders, (4) Biranas, (5) Solomon Islanders, (6) New Hebrideans, 

(7) New Caledonians. 4b 2. Asiatic Papuans (Negritos). 

4b 1 b 3 b 3 (1) Aeta, (2) Semangs? (3) Mincopies. 

IV. Premongoloids: MONGOLOIDS. 5a 1. Malays. 

(1) Asiatic Malays, (2) Pacific Malays (Polynesians and Micronesians), 

(3) Madagascarese or Malagases. 5b 2. Malayo-Chinese (Indo-Chinese). 

(1) Thibetans, (2) Lepcha, (3) Sifans, 

(4) Burmese. 

(a) Thai Group, (b) Anamese. 

(5) Tribes of Indo-China. 5c 3. Chinese. 

5d 4. Prejapanese. 

5d' d J (1) Coreans, (2) Japanese. 

5e 5. Altaians. 

5e' (1) Tunguses: (a) Mandshu, (b) Orot 

shong.

5e' (2) Mongols (Tatars or Tartars): (a) 

East Mongols, (b) Kalmucks, (c) 

Buriats. 

5e s (3) Turks: (a) Uighurs, (b) Uzbeks, 

(c) Osmanlis, (d) Yakuts, (e) Turcomans, (f) Nogaians, Basians, Kumuks, Karakalpaks, Kirghis. 

5e 4 (4) Ural-Altaics. 

(a) Ugrians (Ostiaks, Voguls, Mag 

yars). 

(b) Bulgarians of the Volga. 

(c) Permians (Permians proper, Zir- 

inians, Notiaks). 

(d) Finns (Suomi, Karelians, Vesps r 

Vods, Krevins, Livonians, Ehsts, 

Lapps, Bashkirs, Meshtsheriaks,. 

Teptiars). 

5e* (5) Samoyeds. 

(a) Soiots, (b) Karagasses, (c) Kamassintzi, (d) Koibals, (e) Yuraks, (f) Tawgi. 5f 6. Northern Asiatics of doubtful 

position. (1) Ostiaks of the Yenesei, (2) Yukagiri, (3) Ainos ? (a) Southern Saghaliens, (b) Kurilians, (c) Giliaks. 5g 7. 

Hyperboreans. 

(1) Itelmes or Kamtskatdales, (2) Koriaks, (3) Chukchi, (4) Namollo, (5) Eskimo, (6) Aleuts, (7) Thlinkets and 

Vancouver Tribes. 5h 8. Americans. 

5h' (1) Hunting Tribes of North America. Kenai (transitional). (a) Athabaskans, (b) Algonkins, (c) Iroquois, (d)

Dacotas, (e) Pawnees and Ricarees, (f) Choctaws, Chickasaws, etc., (g) Cherokees, (h) Texas Tribes. 5h a (2) Hunting 

Tribes of South America. 

(a) Tupi, (b) Lenguas or Guaycuru, (c) Parexis or Poragi, (d) Ges or Crans, (e) Crens or Gueras, (f). Gucks or Cocos, 

(g) Mandrucu, (h) Miranhas, (i) Tecunas, (j) Uapes, (k) Arowaks, (1) Caribs. 5h s (3) Civilized Nations and their 

Kinsmen. 

Shoshones (transitional). 

(a) Toltecatlacs: Nahoas, Toltecs. 

(b) Nahuatlacs: Aztecs, Tezcuc 

ans, Tlacopans, Tepanecs, 

Tlascalans, Chontals, etc. 

Californians, Moqui, Utes, 

Pah-Utes, Comanches. 

(c) Other Mexicans: Chichimecs, 

Michuacans, Huastecas, Otomies, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Mazatecs, etc. 

(d) Palencan Group: Quiche, Maya. 

(e) Isthmian Group. 

(f) Peruvian Family: Chibcha or Muysca, Quichua, Aymara or Colla, Cara. 

(g) Yuncas, Araucanians, Pampa Tribes, Patagonians. 

5i 9. European Troglodytes. 5i' (1) Stone Folk. 

5i" (2) Iberians: (a) Basques, (b) Finns, 

Lapps, etc.? 

6 V. DBA VIDIANS.

6a 1. Munda (Jungle Tribes). 

(1) Kohl, (2) Santal, (3) Bhills. 6b 2. Cingalese. 

6c 3. Dekkanese: (1) South Dravidians, (2) 

Brahui. 

7 4. ADAMITES (Mediterraneans). 7 Noachites. 

7a (1) Hamites. 

7a' (a) Accadians. 

Pelasgians, Etruscans. 7a a (b) Himyarites. 

Arabian Himyarites, Galla, Somali, Fulah? Nuba? 7a' (c) Mizraimites. 

Egyptians, Berbers, Atlantideans, Nubians, Fulbe. 7a 4 (d) Canaanites (the primitive tribes) 

7b (2) Semites. 

7b' (a) Assyro-Babylonians. 

7b J (b) Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 

7b s (c) Hebrews. 

7b 4 (d) Joktanide Arabs. 

7b' (e) Ishmaelite Arabs. 

7c (3) Japhetites (Indo-Europeans or Ary 

ans). 

7c 1 (a) Asiatic Aryans (Aryans proper).

Medo-Persians or Iranians. Hindoos or Brahmans. 7c" (b) European Aryans (Yavanas or 

Ionians). 7c" Ionians proper: Achaeans, Ombro 

Latins. 

7c a " Kimmerians. 

Scythians. 

Thracians, Kelts, Letto- 

Slavs. 

Germans. 

Modern Germans. 

Anglo-Saxons. 

Note.—In the foregoing table I have given the Native Americans the arrangement usually assigned, and not that 

proposed in the twentieth and twenty-fourth chapters. 

I fix upon the Australians as the lowest type of humanity. I have before shown (chapter xvi) that their cranial 

measurements and proportions are inferior to those of any other race; I have argued specifically the inferiority of the 

Negroes and Hottentots to the White race, but in every particular in which they fall below the White race, the 

Australians fall still lower than the Black Africans. The jet-black color of the Negroes is farther removed from the 

White race than the leather-brown of the Australians, and so is the kinky character of the hair; but the inferior 

structural and psychic characters of the Australians far outweigh the significance of the color and the hair of the 

Negroes.* In accordance with this conclusion, we find the mammalian fauna surrounding the Australians, the lowest 

inhabiting any continental area; and the well-known principle of harmony of continental faunas would imply that the 

lowest and oldest type of men should be associated with the lowest and oldest type of mammals in general. 

On opposite sides of the curly-haired Australians are the two tufted-haired races — the Papuans and the 

* "The Australians have one of the smallest cranial capacities known among mankind ; they are among the most 

dolichocephalic, the most prognathous, and the most platyrrhinian." (Topinard, Anthropology, p. 503.) Dr. Friedrich 

Milller writes: "At the lowest stage we see the Australian, a being who roves quite like a beast; a being destitute of all 

except purely animal wants. The Australian subsists, like the beast, principally upon food discovered by chance, and 

his dwelling is miserable. His intelligence is dull; only the gratification of animal instincts, as hunger, thirst, sexual 

desire, suffices to arouse it to any extent." (F. Miiller, Novara-Expedition, Anthropologischer Theil, III Abth., 

Einleitung, S. xxvii.) These statements, however, are too sweeping, as Dr. Milller himself subsequently discusses 

"religious phenomena," and says it is certain that "the Faith of the Australians is not very different from the so-called

Shamanism of the High-Asiatics." (76, p. 9.) 

Hottentots. The Papuans are spread out over New Guinea and some smaller islands northeast of Australia. The 

Hottentots and related Bushmen occupy South Africa. Yet the totality of Hottentot characters does not present a close 

resemblance to the Papuans. The Hottentots possess a dark, leathery color, quite resembling that of the Australians; the 

Papuans are very dark skinned, almost black. The Hottentots are nearly destitute of beard; the Papuans, like the 

Australians, are heavy-bearded, and their bodies are generally hairy. The Bushmen, whom many ethnologists class 

with the Hottentots, are very small of stature, and the women are characterized by steatopygy; the Papuans are of large 

stature, and steatopygy is almost or completely unknown. A classification, therefore, which throws the Hottentots and 

Papuans into one group, simply because both races have tufted hair, is one which ignores the general disparity of their 

physical characters. I regard it as reasonable to assume that these two races have been developed independently from 

the central Australians. The resemblances of Hottentots and Papuans are treated by Peschel as follows: "We must call 

attention to a remarkable coincidence of specific resemblance between the Koi-Koin [Hottentots] and the Papuans of 

Fiji. Not only are the tufted matting of the hair and the narrow shape of the skull common to both, but, in women of 

the Papuan race, there is also a tendency to steatopygy. * We must attribute less importance to the point that in both 

races, men and women eat apart, from the fact that this practice is not uncommon elsewhere. It is more remarkable 

* At least among the people dwelling on the shores of the Utenata river in New Guinea. (Salomon Miller, Natuurliche 

Geschiedenis der nederlandcshe Sezittungen.) 

that the Fijian women, when mourning for the dead, cut off joints of their fingers, and that the same mutilation is 

practiced by the Koi-Koin as a rule, especially among women, more rarely among men. But the direct coincidence of 

the legends concerning the mortality of man is very strange. Two gods, the Fijians relate, disputed whether eternal life 

should be conferred upon mankind. Ra-Vula, the moon, wished to give us a death like his own; that is to say, we were 

to disappear and then return in a renewed state. RaKalevo, the rat, however, refused the proposal. Men were to die as 

rats die; and Ra-Kalevo carried the day. According to Anderson, the Koi-Koin have transformed the legend in the 

following way: The moon sent the hare on an embassy to man to say, 'As I die and am born again, so shall ye die and 

come to life again.' But the hare gave the message wrong, for he used the words 'As I die and am not born again.' 

When he confessed his mistake to his employer, the moon hurled a stick at the hare and slit his lips. The faithless 

messenger took flight, and still ranges timidly over the face of the earth." 

"The temptation is great," continues Peschel, "to explain the coincidence of decisive physical characters, strange 

customs, and even a peculiar legend, by supposing either that the Koi-Koin and the Papuan Fijians were derived from 

a common ancestry in primordial times, or at least that they lived so near together as to exchange customs and legends. 

But neither hypothesis is tenable. On closer examination, the Koi-Koin are sufficiently distinguished by the color of 

the skin, the absence of hair on the body, and by the lowness of the skull. Among these people, the amputation of the 

finger-joints is effected during youth, and seems to be superstitiously regarded as a sort of charm. It occurs, moreover, 

among the Polynesians and in the Nicobars. Thus there remains only the similar connection of the moon with the hope 

of immortality. But this merely corroborates the old maxim that, among different varieties, in different regions, and at 

different times, the same objects have given rise to the same idea." * 

The Negroes I regard as an offshoot from the Hottentot branch. The populous nationality of the Kaffirs stands 

intermediate in ethnological characters, as it does in geographical position, between the Bushmen and the Bantu 

Negroes. The Makuani reveal the trail receding from the Bushmen, by a steatopygous deformation. From the Kaffirs, 

the Negroes of other parts of Africa may easily have descended, f From the Kaffir country, as far north as the equator, 

similarity of dialects points to a common language in the remote past. Among the Soudan Negroes greater diversity is 

noticed, both in dialects and in tribal characters. These facts are in accord with the theory which places the Soudan 

Negroes farther from the point of divergence of the Negroid types.

The typical Papuans are restricted to those islands which are geologically connected with the Australian continental 

mass. They are hence styled Australian Papuans. The Asiatic Papuans inhabit islands geographically connected with 

the Asiatic continental mass. They present, accordingly, approximations to the ethnic type of the neighboring 

continent. These, in many cases, are obviously the result of hybridity; other cases are more doubtful, as we shall see. 

* Peschel, Races of Man, pp. 461-2. 

The reader will understand that I except those semi-negroid nations, like the Fulbe, the Teda and the Galla, which are 

so distinctly hybrid races.

Chapter 20 

Genealogy of the Brown Races 

ON the basis of a common origin of all the races, we must next discover some traces of genetic connection between 

the Black races and the Brown. It is interesting to note here the fact of an apparent ethnic transition between the 

Mongoloids and the Papuans. The typical Mongoloids and typical Papuans are too distinct to be confounded; but I 

have heretofore called attention to the Ainos, and some linguistically allied tribes, as representatives of primitive 

predecessors, perhaps ancestors, of the Japanese and Coreans. Similarly, we find on some of the more westerly islands 

of the Melanesian group, on the Molucca group, and other islands of that neighborhood, "the remains of an aboriginal 

population, once belonging to the Papuan race, but now mixed with Malay blood."* The Aeta of the Philippines have 

preserved their ancient racial characteristics in full purity — particularly on the northeastern shore of Luzon (see Fig. 

14).f "In common with the Australian (typical) Papuans, they have woolly, crimped crowns of lusterless hair, and flat 

noses, widening below. Their skin is not black, but of a dark copper color. The lips are a little intumescent, and the 

jaws slightly prognathous." But the few skulls examined 

* Peschel, Races of Man, p. 339. 

t The Mincopies of the Andaman islands are probably another remnant of this primitive Papuan stock. 

are too brachycephalic for complete identification with Australian Papuans; and the Semangs of the peninsula of 

Malacca, which possess similar hirsute characteristics, and otherwise resemble Papuans, have been, in consequence of 

linguistic affinities, classed by Latham unhesitatingly in the Malay group.* These intermediate types constitute a 

physical transition between the two races—Mongoloid and Papuan. The steps in the transition are as follows: 

Australians, Papuans, Asiatic Papuans in general {M? n a ,'0 pie, A Io°si.'Ig S £diu!Sri Mongoloids. The chorographic 

relations of these ethnic types present no insuperable difficulties, since the Asiatic Papuans could easily have spread 

across by Formosa and the Loochoo Islands, to Japan and the Kuriles. While such a descent is thus rendered possible, 

we must hesitate to rest upon it as conclusive. 

In reference to the other Brown race of primitive Asia, the Dravida, it is a fact whose significance points in the same 

direction, that ethnologists have remarked their affinities with the Australians — the mother race of the Papuans. 

Professor Huxley says the Australians are identical with the ancient inhabitants of the Deccan. Broca and Topinard 

class the latter with Australians. The color of the Aus- * Latham, Opuscula, London, 1860. The Semangs, the 

Mincopies, and the Aeta or Ai'gta, constitute the Negritos as defined by Quatrefages. (" Etude sur les Mincopies et la 

race Ne'grito en general," in Revue d'Anthropologic, Vol. I, 1872.) For latest conclusions on the Andamaners 

(Mincopies) see report of Professor Flower's lectures, in Nature, July 3 and 10, 1879. He insists that the Negritos (as 

above defined) are a distinct and properly constituted race. He thinks the Andamaners may represent the primitive 

stock from which the Negroes sprang. This conclusion is consistent with the view of the facts which I have presented. 

Professor Flower questions, however, the alleged existence of Australian elements in Hindustan. 

tralians is a dark, chocolate black, with sometimes a tinge of red in it. They are slight (see Fig. 12) and well made, and 

the pilous system is well developed over the whole body. In these particulars they agree well with Dravidian tribes. 

Both races make use of the boomerang — a circumstance which may be regarded as almost demonstrating some sort 

of connection,— and both races recognize the institution of caste, though, among the Australians, the traces of it are 

obscure. Finally, considerable affinity exists between Australian and Dravidian languages.* In spite, then, of decided 

Australian relationships with the Papuan and Hottentot types, sufficient affinity with the Dravidian exists to justify us 

in agitating the question of derivative relations between them. In this view, we should contemplate the Australian and 

Papuan as two closely related Black races, from which have descended the two related Brown races — the Dravidian

and the Mongoloid. In such case, of course, the common premongoloid and predravidian stock was never spread over 

the continent of Asia. The point of retral convergence of the line of descent was in some other quarter of the world, 

and reached back beyond the epoch of divergence of the Australians and Papuans. 

Other ethnologists have traced resemblances directly between the Hottentots and the Mongoloids. "The only people to 

whom the Hottentot has been thought to bear a resemblance are the Chinese or Malays, or their original stock, the 

Mongols. Like these people, they have the broad forehead, the high cheek-bones, the oblique eye, the thin beard and 

the dull yellow tint of complexion resembling the color 

* On Dravidian and Australian affinities see Topinard, Anthropology, pp. 504-5. 

of a dried tobacco leaf."* Ethnology seems, therefore, to recognize some affinity of both Mongoloids and Dravida with 

the Hottentots. The affinity of the Dravida is traced through the Australians, who are recognized as bearing 

resemblances both to Dravida and Hottentots. The affinity of the Mongoloids is traced sometimes directly and 

sometimes through the Papuans. Between the latter and the Hottentots stand the Fijians, and between the Papuans and 

the Mongoloids we have one line of connection passing through the At ta and perhaps the Ai'nos, and another through 

the Mincopies and Semangs. These relationships may be represented by the following diagram: 

On the other hand, the Dravida are known to possess considerable affinity with the Mongoloids. Their language, 

though much more developed than 

* Keith Johnston, in Encyclopcedia Britannica, art. "Africa," Vol. I, p. 264. It is doubtful, however, whether the 

Mongols are an older type than the Chinese. The Chinese language is the most primitive of all Mongoloid d'alects. 

the Mongoloid dialects, possesses characters which have induced some ethnologists to class it in a "Turanian" family.* 

More than all, the Cingalese Dravida have attained an intellectual position so far above the Australians that, in spite of 

many physical resemblances, we must feel constrained to trace them to some stock already quite diverged from the 

Australian. It is likely that a preasiatic stock once existed which, on one hand, was a divarication from the Australian, 

and on the other, divaricated into primitive Dravidians and premongoloids. This conception is represented by the 

following diagram: 

Australians.

Hottentots. Preasiatics. Papuans. 

^ I ^ 

Predravidians. Premongoloids. Dravidians. 

Of all Mongoloids, the Malays seem to approach nearest to the Black races; and this approximation tends toward the 

Australians, except among those Micronesians where intermixture with Papuans is evident. In both the Asiatic and 

Polynesian branches of this type, the color of the skin is very dark, and sometimes almost black. A moderate degree of 

* Mr. Webb has pointed out with studious care (Journal American Oriental Society) the nature of the affinities 

between the Dravidian and Turanian languages. For a synopsis of this see Brace, Races of the Old World, pp. 138-9. 

Professor J. D. Whitney, however, thinks the conclusions should be reached after the acquisition of a larger basis of 

observations. See also a memoir by M. Alfred Maury, on the Distribution and Classification of Tongues, in Nott and 

Gliddon, Indigenous Races of the Earth, pp. 52-4. 

prognathism exists, and the zygomatic arches are prominent. The Polynesian Malays have less breadth of head than 

most Mongoloids, and the Malay languages are very distinct. All Malays, however, approach the Mongoloid type so 

distinctly that few ethnologists hesitate to class them in the same racial group with the Chinese.

Fig. 48.—Kanoa, Governor of Kauai, Sandwich Islands. From a Photograph furnished by Miss Luella Andrews, late of 

Honolulu. 

The Polynesians have often been designated a distinct race; the prevailing opinion at present seems, however, to be 

that they are Malays at foundation, but have been modified by accession of Papuan blood. This view is favored by the 

blending of the races along the line of contact; but the theory is severely strained by the superiority of the Polynesians 

to both Malays and typical Papuans. The Fijians, indeed, are much superior to the inhabitants of New Guinea, but the 

Maories, the Tahitians and the Kanaks are quite superior to the Fijians. Some of the full-blooded Kanaks express a 

truly Aryan intelligence. Kanoa, the governor of Kauai, presents a head and face worthy of Von Moltke. (Fig. 48.) 

Intermediate between the Malays and the Chinese are the so-called Indo-Chinese, or Malayo-Chinese. These spread 

over the southeastern peninsulas of Asia, constituting the Burmese, Siamese, Anamese, and other nations. In the other 

direction they overspread Thibet, and hold some regions along the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Some tribes of 

IndoChinese approach still more nearly to the national Chinese. There is little uncertainty, therefore, in tracing them to 

a common stem with the Chinese. The Miao-tse, a rude people dwelling in the mountains of southern China, are 

primitive Mongoloids whose ancestors were apparently the aborigines of that empire, though we have no evidence of 

any ancestral relation to the Chinese. 

As to the northern nations of Asia, while distinctly Mongoloid in languages and physical characters, they are all 

linguistically much farther advanced than the Chinese, and must have separated from the common stock at a very 

remote period. The Japanese, though physically approximated to the Chinese, are equally related to the Tunguses; 

while their language proclaims a remote divarication from a stock common with the Chinese. Von Richthofen, 

speaking of the 

Fig. 49.—Hon. Mrs. Dominis, sister of the King of the Sandwich Islands. From a Photograph furnished by Miss Luella 

Andrews, of Elmira, N. Y.

Coreans, says there are two types of them. (1) The noble form of the Japanese, filling the offices and carrying on the 

trades; (2) the smaller-bodied natives, with round heads, very prominent cheek-bones, small eyes and sunken base of 

the nose,— the serving-class. These are the Coreans of early times. On closer study, there would probably be found 

little distinction between them and the Tungusic stems.* 

Fir. 50.—One of the Lepcha — a premongoloid type — aboriginal of Sikliim, along southern face of the Himalayas, 

on the western border of Bhotan. From Watson and Kaye's Photographs. 

* Von Richthofen, China, p. 50, note. 

The ethnic characters of the Mongoloids are traced throughout the two Americas in a considerable diversity of colorshades, 

features and social conditions, and an immense diversification of dialects, especially upon the northern 

continent.* The most divergent of the American types is probably that of the Innuit or Eskimo, which might with 

propriety be regarded as standing for a distinct race, and is sometimes so separated. The cranium is more 

dolichocephalous than that of the Asiatic Mongoloids, or even that of other American aborigines. It is distinctly 

marked by relative height, caused by the extraordinary flatness of the sides and the presence of a prominent coronary 

ridge. They have the most leptorhinian of all skulls, even exceeding the Mediterraneans, their nasal index being 42.33, 

while that of modern Parisians is 46.81, that of Polynesians 49.25, of Australians 53.39, of Nubian Negroes 55.17, and 

of Hottentots 56.38.-j- The maxillary bones are enormous, the malar bones large and thick, and the zygoma is oblique 

and capacious. Other cranial characters, especially in comparison with the continental Indians of northern America, are 

stated by Dall as follows: \ "The mean capacity (in cubic centimeters) of three Tuski skulls from Plover Bay [on the 

Asiatic side], according to Dr. Wyman, was 1,505; that of twenty crania of northern Eskimo, according to Dr. Davis,

* Major Powell insists that North America furnishes " more than seventy-iive stocks of languages." (Proceedings 

American Association, Saratoga Meeting, 1879.) It is generally agreed that the languages of the feral tribes of South 

America are at least equally diversified. 

t The nasal index expresses the relative breadth of the nose. It is the ratio of the breadth of the nasal opening in the 

skull to the whole distance from the subnasal point to the upper extremity of the nasal bones. 

X Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 376. 

was 1,475, and that of four Innuit crania, of Norton Sound [American side], was 1,320; thus showing a wide variation. 

The mean capacity of twenty west American Indian crania was only 1,284.06. The mean height of all the Orarian* 

skulls above referred to was 136.55 mill., against a breadth of 134.47 mill., while the height of the Indian skulls was 

120.14 mill., against a breadth of 100.025 mill. The zygomatic diameter of the Orarian crania was 134.92 mill., while 

that of the twelve Indian skulls was 134.65 mill. The Orarian skulls were most dolichocephalic, and the Indian most 

brachycephalic. The latter averaged 378.71 cubic cent. less capacity than the former." The extreme northern Eskimo are 

comparatively stunted in stature; but Professor Dall reports that the Orarians generally attain a stature equal to that of 

their continental neighbors. 

Compared further with the continental Indians, Professor Dall says: "The strength and activity of the former [Orarians] 

far exceed that of any northern Indians with whom I am acquainted. They are much more intelligent, and superior in 

every essential respect to the Indians. The language of the western Innuit differs totally in the vocabulary from that of 

any Indian tribes, while there are many words common to the Greenlanders and the Behring Strait Eskimo." f The 

settlements of the Orarians, moreover, are almost entirely littoral, and their occupations 

*The term "Orarian" has been employed by Professor W. H. Dall to designate the shore-inhabiting tribes. They 

embrace (1) the Innuit, comprising all the so-called Eskimo and Tuski (Namollo) and (2) the Ale-uts. (Dall, 

Proceedings American Association, 1869, p. 265; Alaska and its Resources, 1870, p. 373; Powell's Contributions to 

North American Ethnology, Vol. I, p. 8, etc. 

t Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 377. maritime. Finally, "at no point does there seem to be any intercourse between 

the Eskimo and the Indians, except in the way of trade. They never intermarry, and, in trading, use a sort of jargon 

neither Indian nor Eskimo."* 

While, therefore, we cannot fail to be impressed by the ethnic distinctions of American Orarians and American Indians 

of the interior, there is equally apparent an ethnic resemblance between American and Asiatic Orarians. The Chukluk-mut 

or Namollo of Prichard, residing on the Asiatic shores of Behring's Strait, are very near kindred of the Eskimo. 

They are essentially the same. The inland neighbors of these, the Chuk-chi, are thought by Dall to be widely distinct 

from the Innuit. Though in constant commercial intercourse with these, he tells us they never intermarry, use a totally 

distinct vocabulary and communicate only by means of a jargon. Their language is said to possess alliances with the 

Korak tongue, and Dall thinks them a branch of that stock.f Still, we know too little as yet about the Chuk-chi to deny 

dogmatically their affinity with the neighboring Naniollo. 

However this may be, the Namollo offer well attested relations with characteristic Asiatics. A Na 

* Dall, Proceedings American Association, 1869, p. 272.

t Professor Dall maintains (Powell's Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol I, pp. 12-14, 103, Washington, 

1877,) that the Namollo have by some authors been designated Chuk-chi only through a misapprehension. The 

Namollo of Prichard are the Tuski of Hooper and Markham, and the Chuk-luk-mut of Dall (in the latest publications), 

and are indisputably Orarian in their characters. It seems probable that the so-called Chuk-chi, with whom the 

Nordenskjold expedition maintained intercourse during their winter imprisonment, were these same Namollo, often 

called sedentary Chukchi, in contrast with the migratory reindeer owners who, as Dall thinks, are the real Chuk-chi. 

mollo boy whom Colonel Bnlkley took from Plover Bay to San Francisco was always supposed to be a Chinese,— a 

mistake identical with one frequently made in reference to two native Aleut sailors in a town in which Chinese and 

Japanese are to be met with in every street.* Of the Nam olio, Liitke affirms that they possess well marked Mongolian 

features in their prominent cheek-bones, small noses and frequently obliquely set eyes.f 

Nor is the Asiatic affinity of the Orarians less noticeable when we turn to the study of the Aleuts. Professor Dall, who 

thinks the Orarians possess American rather than Asiatic affinities, insists on the marked philological divergence 

between the Aleuts and their Asiatic neighbors the Japanese. But physiognomic and structural resemblances bear down 

all such difficulties. The Aleut (Fig. 10) brought from Unalashka by Professor Dall himself was always mistaken, in 

Ann Arbor, for one of the Japanese students (compare Fig. 51V I feel great confidence in assuming that 

physiognomical resemblances so obtrusive denote close ethnic relationship. The linguistic disparity between Aleuts 

and Innuits is quite comparable with that between Aleuts and Japanese. Speaking of the languages of Aleuts and Innuit 

Kaniag-muts, Dall says: ''The words, almost without exception, are quite different in the two groups." \ Even within 

the bounds of the Innuit group, the Ekog-mut are said to exhibit a marked change in personal appearance, customs and 

dialect from the whole group north and east of Norton Sound. Their most noticeable personal peculiarity consists in 

their 

* Whymper, Alaska, p. 273. 

\ Liitke, Voyage autour du Monde, Vol. II, p. 264, 1835. X Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 386. 

hairy bodies and strong beards. They are more nearly allied to the tribes to the south of them."* Abrupt local 

transitions of dialects are characteristic of uncultured tribes, destitute of writing, and living generally in comparative 

isolation. They are eminently characteristic of American tribes, as will be further shown. In the presence of such 

dialectic contrasts we find in all parts of the world conflicting but unimpeachable ethnic resemblances. I think it 

reasonable to maintain that physical similarities constitute the ultimate criterion of ethnic affinity. Language is 

something external: it may be assumed, and it may be laid aside, but no human being can escape from his skin or his 

cranium. Allied language is the natural outcome of ethnic kinship, but the child, under changed relations, does not 

always speak the language of its parents. Linguistic comparisons are only available as shedding light upon cases where 

the physical indications are ambiguous, or as furnishing an intimation of the length of time elapsed since separation 

from a common stock, or as proving former territorial relations. In some well known instances they have proved 

conclusive and invaluable. Ethnology concerns, fundamentally, questions of blood and physical likeness, and only 

accessorily, the accidents of speech. I must insist, therefore, on the ethnic kinship between the Ale-uts and the 

Japanese, and between the Namollo and the Chinese, as also between the Namollo and the Chuk-chi, Koraks, Itelmes, 

and Tunguses.

Fig. 51.— Portrait of Okubo, a native Japanese student at Ann Arbor. From a photograph by Lewis. 

* Dall, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. I, p. 17. 

On linguistic grounds, however, we may infer that the Eskimo have lived a very long time apart from their Asiatic 

kindred, and that the Ale-uts have for many centuries remained dissociated from the Eskimo.* From the testimony of 

shell-heaps, it appears that the Aleutian Islands have been occupied by tribes of Orarian type from a period so remote 

that their 

* Professor Dall concludes that the "Littoral" (or lower) layer in the shell-mounds of the Aleutian Islands required 

1000 years for its accumulation, and the overlying "Fish-layer" and "Hunting-layer," 1500 to 2000 years. He thinks 

3000 years are not too high an estimate for the duration of Aleutian occupation of these islands. See also Powers, in 

Powell's Contributions, Vol. III, p. 216. populations "were without houses, clothing, fire, lamps, ornaments, weapons 

(unless of the most primitive kind), implements of the chase, for fishing or even for cooking what they might have 

found upon the shore."* The Ale-uts are now half-civilized. If such changes have taken place in customs since the 

beginning of Aleut occupation, what transformations may not have been experienced by their language? And what 

dependence can be placed on the inference that their primitive language was unlike that of their nearest Asiatic 

neighbors, because its present outcome is so widely divergent? 

Further southward, along the northwest coast of America, dwell numerous other tribes which, according to the 

accounts, must be widely distinguished from the Hunting Indians of the interior. The Tlinket or Koloshian family, 

consisting of several tribes, are represented as lighter colored than any other North American aborigines. They have, 

indeed, been described as "having as fair a complexion, when their skins are washed, as the inhabitants of Europe; and 

this distinction, accompanied sometimes with auburn hair, has been considered as indicating an origin different from 

that of the copper-colored tribes." f The hair, however, is generally black and stiff. Dall includes in this family the

Yakutats, the Chilkaht-kwan, the Sitka-kwan, the Stakhin-kwan and the Kygahni (or Haidahs), stretching from near 

Mt. St. Elias to Queen Charlotte's Island. To the same family probably belong the Hailtsa, on the mainland, the Nanaimuk, 

Kowitsin and Klalam of Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland of Washington, as well as the 

* Dall, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. I, p. 55 t Encyclop&riia Britannica,\o].l, p.690, art. "America"; Peschel, Races 

of Man, p. 398. 

Tsinuks (or Chinooks), who occupy the basin of the Columbia river to the Dalles. The latter have the obliquely slit 

eyes which proclaim their Mongoloid origin. These tribes speak a great variety of dialects, but they are not 

distinguishable from each other by their physical characters. The late Governor J. Furuhelm says: "The customs of the 

different tribes inhabiting the coast from Puget Sound to Mount St. Elias, as well as the islands known as the Prince of 

Wales and King George archipelagos resemble each other very much."* Professor Dall tells us that Eskimo dialects are 

spoken (by the Ugaluk-mut) as far south as Mount St. Elias. Liitke expressly states that the inhabitants of Queen 

Charlotte's Islands cannot be distinguished physically from the people living on the shores of Behring's Sea. Latham 

comments on the contrast between the Eskimo type and that of the Hunting Indians on the Atlantic coast, and the 

absence of such contrast between the Eskimo and their neighbors on the Pacific coast. "These [the Eskimo of Russian 

America] are so far," he says, "from being separated by any broad and trenchant line of demarkation from the proper 

Indian, or the so-called Red Race [by which he means all northern Americans except Eskimo, while clearly referring 

here to the coast tribes which I have distinguished from those of the interior], that they pass gradually into it; and that, 

in respect to their habits, manner and appearance, equally. So far is this the case that he would be a bold man who 

should venture, in speaking of the southern tribes of Russian America, to say, Here the Eskimo area ends, and here a 

different area begins." f 

* Furuhelm, in Powell's Contributions, p. 111. Furuhelm was governor of the Russian-American colonies, t Latham, 

Varieties of Man, p. 291. 

It seems very certain, therefore, from all the evidence, that the natives of the northwest coast are closely akin to the 

Ale-uts and the Eskimo, and may fairly be regarded as a southward prolongation of the Orarian type characterized by 

Dall. But, according to Gibbs, the tribes above mentioned from Washington territory belong in the great Selish family, 

with all the other tribes of Washington north of Mount St. Helen's, and west of the Cascade Mountains, except the 

Makah of Cape Flattery (of the Nutka family) and the Owillapsh of the Tinneh family. The Sahaptin tribes south of 

Mount St. Helen's and the Tsinuk of the Columbia river are closely related, while the latter are physically 

undistinguishable from the tribes farther north.* The tribes of the Selish family are known to be settled also far up the 

Columbia river, as far as the national boundary, and on Clark's Fork, and on the Okinakaine, and also along the Fraser 

river, up to its "middle course." 

Most of the tribes of Californian Indians, according to the fascinating descriptions and narratives of Mr. Stephen 

Powers,f are not only related physically and socially to each other, but are widely distinct from the Hunting Indians of 

the interior of the continent. With such physical resemblances, it may by some be regarded as somewhat surprising that 

their languages are so distinct and so numerous. If, however, this fact were quite inexplicable, I should feel bound to 

give precedence to physical traits in the matter of ethnological evidence. But it appears, contrary to general belief 

respecting the persistence of language, 

* Dr. George Gibbs, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. I, pp. 170-1, 241. 

t Powers, in Powell's Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. III.

that the diversification of tongues proceeds, in California and other parts of North America, with unexpected facility 

and rapidity. Lieutenant Ives, referring to the diversity of languages among the racially identical and locally 

approximated inhabitants of the Pueblos of the Colorado valley, states that different villages within a circuit of ten 

miles speak three different languages. "The people are indolent and apathetic, and have abandoned the habit of visiting 

each other till the languages which, with all Indian tribes, are subject to great mutations, have gradually become 

dissimilar. These Indians are identical in race, manners, habits and mode of living."* Dr. George Gibbs, speaking of 

the Indians of Washington territory, says: ''Dr. Newell states that, since he was first in the Indian country, all the great 

tribes have been gradually breaking up into bands. ... It is to this separation, and to the petty hostilities which often 

grow out of it, that we must mainly attribute the diversity of dialects prevailing." + The same statements may naturally 

be made of the tribes of California. Mr. Stephen Powers tells us that the Hupa (see Fig. 52) "are the French in the 

extended diffusion of their language." They compel all their tributaries to speak Hupa in communicating with them. "A 

Mr. White, a pioneer well acquainted with the Chi-mal-a-kwe, who once had an entirely distinct tongue, told me that 

before they became extinct, they scarcely employed a verb which was not Hupa. In the Hupa reservation, in the 

summer of 1871, the Hupa constituted not much more than half the occupants, yet the Hupa was not only the French of 

the reservation, . . . but it was also in general use within 

* Ives, Colorado Exploring Expedition, p. 127. 

t George Gibbs, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. I, p. 225. 

each rancheria. . . . Among the tribes surrounding the Hupa, I found many Indians speaking three, four, five and more 

languages, always including Hupa, and generally English."* All these facts reveal a state of linguistic instability 

among the West-coast Indians which is quite at variance with principles induced from the study of the more perfected 

and copious languages of the Old World, but which, nevertheless, may easily be believed characteristic generally of 

the languages of unsettled and uncultured populations. I feel justified in concluding, therefore, that the Californian 

Indians, excepting a few tribes of the Tinneh family, and possibly also the Shoshoni, are not only ethnologically and 

closely affiliated to each other, but stand in similar relations to the tribes of Oregon, Washington and Vancouver 

Island, and contiguous portions of British Columbia. It is only a slightly increased differentiation which separates them 

from the Tlinkets, Haidah and Nassee, and finally the Eskimo and Aleuts of the extreme northwest. 

These tribes are all oraiian or riparian in habitat and habits. They subsist upon the products of the waters and such 

fruits and roots as the several zones of latitude afford. They are all characteristically ichthyophagous, and, as far south 

as Cape Flattery, the Makah pursue the whale in the open sea, and, Eskimo like, make food of the blubber and the oil. 

They build their habitations by the water's edge, and make them permanent. Their disposition is generally mild, in 

contrast with the fierce, revengeful and scalp-lifting warriors of the interior of the continent. In stature they are mostly 

short. In physiognomy the cheekbones are less prominent, the nose is straighter and the face less oval than among the 

hunting tribes. 

* Powers, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. III, pp. 72-3.

Fig. 52.—A Hupa Woman, of California. Type of Asiatic Americans. After Powers, in Powell's Contributions to the 

Ethnology of North America. 

Many other common traits distinguishing them from the Hunting Indians might be enumerated if I were

Fig. 53.—Spotted Tail, chief of the Brul

* Buschmann, in Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1863. See, in connection with this 

discussion, his earlier work, Astekischs Ortsnamen, Berlin, 1853. 

conclusion involves all the civilized nations of Mexico and central America, since though the Nahuatl prevailed in its 

purity only in the neighborhood of the Mexican capital, traces of it exist from New Mexico 

Fig. 54.—Numpayu, a Moqui maiden. Type of the Asiatic Americans. From a photograph by W. H. Jackson. 

to the Lake of Nicaragua. It is probable, also, that the Quiches, of Guatemala, and their allied neighbors the Maya of 

Yucatan, as well as the Toltecs, the kinsmen and predecessors of the Nahuatl Aztecs

and Tlascalans, are all to be brought together in one great ethnic family. 

The civilized Peruvians knew nothing of the civilization of Mexico and central America, or of the lan

Fig. 56.— A Quichua Indian of Peru. From the mountains east of Lima. From a Photograph obtained by Prof. J. B. 

Steere. 

guages spoken north of the Isthmus of Darien. This, however, as I maintain, is not conclusive evidence that the 

Peruvians and Mexicans had not lived together in America at some remote period. With the Quichuas 

of Peru we must class, ethnologically, the Muysca or Chibcha of Bogota, the Colla or Aymara on Lake Titacaca, and 

perhaps the divergent but civilized Yuncas of the west slopes of the Andes. 

Finally, we find the Eskimo type even among the primitive Patagonians. Of five skulls taken from prehistoric burials, 

M. Topinard writes as follows: "At first sight one would think they were the skulls of Eskimo. The narrowness of the 

forehead, its height, its bulging at the level of the frontal bosses, the antero-posterior elongation of the cranium, its 

posterior part in the form of an inclined plane, and then curved round; the height of the vertical diameter, or 

acrocephaly, the vertical direction downward of the sides, the elongation of the face, the projection forward of the 

malar bones, the degree of prognathism, the narrowness of the interval between the orbits, the harmony of form 

between the cranium and the face,— all this is Eskimo. The teeth themselves are worn down horizontally, as in this 

race."* It is true that some of the other skulls varied from this description, but the average of twenty-seven in respect 

to dolichocephalism was 75.92. 

These indications of the presence of the Peruvian type in the extreme south of the continent are quite confirmed by the 

existence of mummies in rockshelters upon the northwestern coast of Patagonia. One of these has been deposited by 

the discoverer, Dr. Aq. Ried, in the museum at Ratisbon, Bavaria, and another was sent to the Smithsonian Institution.f 

These mummies, like those of Peru, are found in a sitting posture, with some simple articles of use and convenience 

by their side. The humid atmosphere of Patagonia, so

* Topinard, Anthropology, pp. 482-3. Compare antea, p. 405, seq. t Aq. Ried, Smithsonian Annual Report, 1862, pp. 

87, 426. 

unlike that of Peru, leads to the inference that the mummification of the dead was practiced under the influence of 

some controlling motive, which must have been inherited from ancestors dwelling in a more propitious clime, and 

which even the dripping meteorology of Patagonia was insufficient to eradicate. 

Dr. Morton, the distinguished American craniologist and ethnologist, insisted upon the racial unity of the American 

aborigines, and their distinctness from the Mongolian type.* In dissenting from positions so generally accepted f on the 

high authority of Dr. Morton, I have the support of recent ethnological writers of the highest rank. Professor Retzius, a 

pioneer in exact craniometry, says: "It is scarcely possible to find anywhere a more distinct distribution into 

dolichocephali and brachycephali than in America. . . From all, then, that I have been able to observe, I have arrived at 

the opinion that the dolichocephalic form prevails in the Carib Islands and in the whole eastern part of the American 

continent, from the extreme northern limits to Paraguay and Uruguay in the south; while the brachycephalic prevails in 

the Kurile [Aleutian?] Islands and on the Continent, from the latitude of Behring's Strait, through Oregon, Mexico, 

Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Republic, 

* Morton, Crania Americana, p. 260, et passim; Ethnology and Archceology of American Aborigines, p. 9; Schoolcraft, 

History of the Indians, Vol. II, p. 316. Humboldt also says "The nations of America, except those which border on the 

polar circle, form a single race, characterized by the formation of the skull, the color of the skin, the extreme thinness 

of the beard, and straight glossy hair." 

t Stephens, Yucatan, Vol. I, p. 284; Nott and Gliddon, Types of Mankind, chap, ix; Indigenous Races of the Earth, pp. 

332-7; Agassiz, in Types of Mankind, p. 69. In this category might also be named Lawrence, Wiseman, Squier, Meigs, 

and, until a recent date, the generality of writers on American ethnology. 

Patagonia to Terra del Fuego."* . . . "The brachycephalic tribes of America are found, for the most part, on that side of 

the continent which looks toward Asia and the islands of the Pacific, and they seem to be related to the Mongol races." 

Dr. Daniel Wilson has advanced very similar views,f and has supplied tables of measurements from 289 skulls by 

which the question is placed beyond all possible controversy. 

It remains to note that the Pacific-slope type of skull pervaded not only the regions found by the Spaniards in 

possession of the civilized nations, but the entire continent, as far at least as the relics of the Mound-builders are 

distributed. The Mound-builders were certainly of the cranial type of the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians, and thus of 

the cranial type of all the natives of the Pacific slope, at least as far as Sitka. After the personal comparison of Peruvian 

skulls, X with authentic Mound-builders' skulls from Michigan and Indiana, and others from dolmens and mounds in 

central Tennessee, I feel confident that the identity of the race of Mound-builders with the race of Anahuac and Peru 

will become generally recognized. So far as skulls from the mounds were known to science during Dr. Morton's 

lifetime, he recognized their close affinity with the ancient Peruvian and Mexican; but Dr. Wilson has insisted upon 

this affinity with a more considerable array of meas- * Retzius, Present State of Ethnology in Relation to the Form of 

the Human Skull, translated for Smithsonian Annual Report, 1859, pp. 264, 267. 

t Wilson, Canadian Journal of Industry, Science and Art, Nov. 1856 and 1857; Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 

Jan. 1858; Smithsonian Annual Report, 1862, p. 246, seq. 

t Collected and deposited in the Museum of the University of Michigan, by Professor Joseph B. Steere, Ph.D.

urements to sustain the position; * and has shown that numerous existing tribes of the south and southwest are 

similarly brachycephalic. The Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg,f after the ablest and most extensive researches, declares 

that the preaztec Mexicans or Toltecs were a people identical with the Moundbuilders. The Mexican records indicate 

that they migrated from a country lying to the northeast, known as old Tlapalan, and that they were expelled by the 

hostility of the Chichimecs or barbarous tribes. The Toltecs or Nahuas displaced a still older and somewhat civilized 

people, the Colhuas. It was the relics of Toltecan civilization, according to Stephens, which the Spanish conquerors 

found in central America; and there is little hazard in inferring the same idenity in the sources of Peruvian and 

Mexican civilization as we find in the racial characteristics of the ancient inhabitants of those countries. 

Colonel J. W. Foster,^ after much personal study of this subject, concluded that the Mound-builders possessed a 

conformation of skull "which was subsequently represented in the people who developed the ancient civilization of 

Mexico and central America," and that "this people were expelled from the Mississippi valley by a fierce and 

barbarous race, and that they found refuge in the more genial climate of central America." 

I have included the Pueblo Indians of North America under the type of Asiatic Americans (p. 333). There is little 

room for doubt that they are the descendants of the builders of the cliff-dwellings, which 

* Wilson, Smithsonian Annual Report, 1862, pp. 248, 250, 254, 263. t See Baldwin's Ancient America, p. 201, seq. i In 

his valuable work, Prehistoric Races of the United States, 3d ed., Chicago, 1874, pp. 350, 351. 

have been so happily described and illustrated by Jackson and Holmes, in connection with Dr. Hayden's survey of the 

territories.* Dr. E. Bessels says: "There is not much room left to doubt that the present Pueblo Indians are the direct 

descendants of the ancient inhabitants of southern Colorado and New Mexico." f What is more important in the 

present connection is his decided identification of the cranial type of the mesa ruins, or ancient cliff-dwellings, with 

that of the Peruvians and that of mounds in Tennessee. "Skull No. 1179," he says, "might very well be taken for that of 

an ancient Peruvian" (p. 55). "To show the resemblance between the skulls from southern Colorado and New Mexico . 

. . and those of the ancient Peruvians," a diagram is given by Dr. Bessels, in which several profiles are superposed, 

showing marked coincidences. Finally, writing in reference to the report of a ceiling in one of the cliffdwellings which 

had been arched at the height of twenty feet, over a room twenty-five or thirty feet in diameter, Dr. Bessels remarks, 

"There are but two tribes inhabiting this continent whose architectural skill proved efficient enough for this purpose, 

namely, the Peruvians and the Eskimos'''' (p. 61).\ 

Contrasted with this round-headed and thin-skulled type stretching from Sitka along the western slope of America, as 

far as the Straits of Magellan, is the long-headed, thick-skulled and oval-faced Indian of 

* See especially Jackson, in Hayden Annual Report, 1874, pp. 369-81, with plates; and Hayden Annual Report, 1875, 

pp. 12, 23^4; and Holmes and Jackson, in Hayden Annual Report, 1876, Part III, pp. 383-457, many illustrations. 

t Bessels, in Bulletin of Hayden Survey, Vol. II, p. 61. 

% The racial identity of Mound-builders and the Pueblo Indians has been admitted by L. H. Morgan, North American 

Review, CIX, 409, Oct. 1869. 

the interior. This sub-racial type stretches, in North America, from the Yukon river to the borders of Mexico, and 

eastward to the Atlantic ocean. Its numerous tribes are grouped in families, less upon physical than upon linguistic and 

social grounds; though physiognomic and structural characters present diversities similar to those observed among the

Chinese and Japanese. The most widely distributed family is that of the Tinneh, otherwise known as the Chippewayans 

or Athabaskans. This stretches from the delta of the Yukon eastward to the watershed, separating the basins of the 

Athabaska and M'Kenzie rivers from that of Hudson's Bay, and thence southward, principally along the flanks of the 

Rocky Mountains. Some tribes reach the western sea-coast in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and 

California. To this family belong the Navahoes, who extend eastward of the Colorado to the highlands of Mexico; the 

Apaches, ranging over western Colorado and into the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Coahuila, and also another 

southern tribe, the Lipans, located in Texas, near the mouth of the Rio Grande del Norte. 

The territory of the Algonkin family extended from the sources of the Missouri river eastward, spreading especially 

over the regions east of the Mississippi, and included the well known tribes of Blackfeet, Ojibways, Crees, Shawnees 

and the "Five Nations" of the Middle and Eastern States. The Iroquois family were located in Canada, in the midst of 

Algonkin territory. The Dakotah or Sioux family dwell between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi. A 

considerable number of other tribes have not yet been grouped in families. Among them are the Pawnees and Ricarees 

of the Rocky Mountain region, the Choctaws and Chickasaws of the southeast portion of the United States, allied to 

the Muskogees and Seminoles, the Cherokees of the Carolinas, and sundry tribes of Texas. It is probable that most of 

these belong to the brachycephalic sub-race. 

The Hunting Tribes of South America are more diversified than those of the North, both in respect to ethnic characters 

and languages, and social condition. But everywhere are noticeable some of the fundamental characteristics of the 

Mongoloid type of man. On linguistic, and partly on physical, grounds they have been grouped in families, but I shall 

not occupy space to enumerate them here. 

I desire now to direct attention to the ethnic affinities existing between the Hunting Tribes of the North American 

Indians and the Polynesians, who are generally regarded as Mongoloid at the foundation. Both races are characterized 

by a brownish-olive color. Both races are tall, and in height surpass the Mongoloid Asiatics; the eyes are straight, 

while obliquity is of frequent occurrence among tribes more distinctly Mongoloid; the nose, sometimes Asiatic, is 

more frequently large, prominent, bridged, and even aquiline; this is a Papuan character, while the typical Mongoloid 

nose is short and depressed; the face is oval, and not flat, and it is longer than in Asiatics; the cranium is smaller and 

more dolichocephalous, and the face less prognathous. Add to this that the Sumpitan or blowgun, a hunting weapon, is 

used by the tribes of New Guinea, as well as by those of the Amazons and Orinoco, and we have a catalogue of 

resemblances worthy at least to arrest serious attention. 

I recognize, therefore, among American aborigines, two general stocks of Mongoloids; one is Asiatic, and connects 

itself, structurally and geographically, 

with the nations of northern Asia; the other is Polynesian.* 

This theory, it must be confessed, encounters a difficulty in the marked dolichocephalism of the Eskimo. If the 

dolichocephalism of the continental Indians is made a ground of distinction from the west-coast type, is it not an 

adequate ground for distinguishing the Eskimo from that type and uniting them with the continental Indians? On this 

subject I offer the following suggestions: 

1. No ethnologist, not even Morton, the great defender of American unity of type, has ever united the Eskimo with the 

continental Indians in consequence of their dolichocephalism or other cranial characters, nor in consequence of any 

affinity presented by the sum of their ethnic characters. Not a few have set them down even as a distinct race.f 

2. Most ethnologists admit that the Eskimo type reaches to the Siberian Tuski (Namollo, or Chuk-lukmut) and the Ale-

uts, which present the first step of closer approximation toward Asiatic Chuk-chi on the one hand, and American 

Tlinkets on the other. 

3. The western Eskimo are distinctly less dolichocephalic than the eastern. The mean index of 21 Greenland Eskimo 

was 71.7 (Broca), and of 100 cra- * Some appropriate terms are needed to express the distinction, recognized in this 

work, between the affiliated tribes of the north and west coasts of America, living mostly in villages or somewhat 

fixed abodes, and the feral hunting tribes without fixed habitations. I have hesitated to extend the term "Orarian" to all 

the former, both because many of the tribes, like the Pueblos and Coinanches, are not shore-inhabiting, and because 

such an extension of the application of the term might not be sanctioned by the proposer. I suggest, therefore, the name 

Sedenles for the sedentary or village Indians, and Vagantes for the wandering or hunting Indians. These terms imply 

nothing in reference to ethnic origin or relations. 

t See the comparisons made, pp. 163, 164, 166, etc. 

nia, by Hays, 70.7. The mean index of six northwest American Eskimo was 75.1, and of eleven Asiatic Eskimo 79.5, 

which brings the last named Eskimo almost to the borders of brachycephalism. 

4. Numerous observers, as I have shown, maintain a substantial identity of type from Puget Sound to Behring's Straits, 

in spite of increasing dolichocephalism northward. 

5. The Mongoloid race is not characterized by any standard degree of dolichocephalism. Aside from Eskimo, the race 

presents a wide range in the value of the cranial index. The Chinese are sub-dolichocephalic, having an index of 77.6; 

the Turks are subbrachycephalic, having an index of 81.5; the IndoChinese are brachycephalic, ha zing an index of 

83.5, while the Lapps, sometimes grouped with the Eskimo in a "Hyperborean race," have an index of 85.1. 

We must conclude, therefore, that the cranial index is only one of the characters on which a natural ethnic 

classification must be based; that it presents a considerable range among people whom a comprehensive judgment 

would pronounce identical, and that its indications may sometimes be entirely overborne by the weight of evidence 

drawn from the totality of characters. 

It only remains, in discussing the genealogy of the Mongoloids, to remind the reader that this type included the 

prehistoric inhabitants of Europe. It is impossible, however, to indicate at present any particular family of Mongoloids 

to which these people may be certainly affiliated. It is likely, nevertheless, that their closest genetic relations are with 

certain Mongoloids now occupying northwestern Asia, and the Arctic shores of Europe.* 

* Some facts bearing on this relation to the Mongoloids are furnished in chapter xi.

Chapter 21 

Genealogy of the White Race 

WE now reach the question of the nature of the connection between the Brown races and the White. Did the White 

race make its appearance after the Mongoloid and the Dravidian types had become differentiated? And was it derived 

from one of these? Or was the White type derived directly from one of the Black races? 

I have heretofore assumed the possibility that the Brown races are Adamic; though I have indicated a leaning toward 

the opposite view. The question confronts us here for a decision. Which is most probable— that the highest race 

should proceed directly from one of the lowest, or that it should issue from one of the races between it and the lowest? 

On scientific grounds, the question admits of but one answer. I will remind the reader, also, of three considerations of 

a concurring tendency: 1. The passage from the White to the Brown races would be a racial retrogression; and this, as 

I have shown, conflicts with the general method of nature. 2. The Mongoloid race has become so populous and so 

widespread, and was so populous and widespread at the earliest dawn of history, and even of tradition, that it seems 

improbable that the 1656 years between Adam and the Flood (according to popular chronology) were sufficient time to 

lay the foundations of so vast a race. 3. The people with whom Cain affiliated so naturally could not have been racially 

as divergent as one of the Black types. If it is asked what has become of the posterity of Cain, or of other nonSethite 

sons of Adam, it may be replied that Cain's posterity became merged into the type of Mongoloids or Dravidians; and 

other posterity of Adam perished with the Sethites, in the flood.* 

I feel constrained, therefore, to assume tentatively, that we must look for the descent of the Adamites from a 

Mongoloid or a Dravidian stock. The Turkish Osmanlis and Turcomans approach, physically, nearer to the 

Mediterranean stock than any other Mongoloids. Their geographical position, moreover, in the regions about the 

Caspian sea, and the eastern shores of the Euxine, is geographically approximated to the Adamic seat. Of the 

Turcomans, Vambery says that they alone of all Mongolians do not possess high cheek-bones, and the blonde color is 

predominant among them. Next follow the Karakalpaks, whose women, with a white color and large dark eyes, pass 

for good-looking. Then come the Kirghis, whose women and children have generally a white, almost European, 

complexion. f At a date as remote as Adam, however, the Turkish stock may have had a home much farther removed 

from Eden.:): It is also some evidence of Mongoloid affinities, that the earliest Nbachites who have left traces of their 

language in Mesopotamia seem to have spoken a dialect possessing Turanian elements. On the contrary, the hair of the 

Mongoloids generally is straight, black and coarse; 

*The Usiin were a fair, blue-eyed people in northeastern Asia many centuries before our era, against whom the 

Turkish Hiong-Nu made persistent war. Who were the Usttn? Who were the similar Ting Ling and Kiekars? Perhaps 

Cainites; perhaps Sethites not in the line of Noah. Are not the Finns the descendants of these? 

t Vambe'ry, Sketches in Central Asia, p. 284. % This, we shall see, was the fact. 

and the body is sparsely supplied with a pilous growth. The Turks, however, in this respect deviate from the normal 

Mongoloids. The zygomatic arches of the Mongoloids are also more prominent than those of the Mediterraneans; the 

nose is flatter, and the eyes generally more oblique. 

Turning to the Dravida, we find conditions, perhaps, still more favorable to the hypothesis of a direct genetic 

relationship with the Adamites. 1. Their geographical position, from the earliest times reached by history or 

monuments, has been approximate to the accepted location of the Adamic Eden. 2. Their hair is dark and curly, 

according to the type of the Adamites. 3. Their complexion ranges from dark reddish to brownish and blackish, and

exhibits a series of transitional states between Australians and Mediterraneans such as to sustain the hypothesis of a 

genetic passage. 4. The recognized affinity of their languages with the Turanian stock would explain the presence of 

Turanian elements in the Accadian of the early Hamite (p. 137). 

As bearing on this aflinity, I make the following quotations. Mr. Brace says: '' The Toda in the Nilghiri hills are 

remarkable both for having been untouched by Sanscrit influences, and for their fine personal appearance. Some of 

them are said to present strikingly the Roman cast of features; their figures are tall and athletic, complexion brown, 

and beards bushy. The women have long black hair and beautiful teeth, and are fairer than the men."* Of the Bhotiya 

tribes, also Dravidians, Brace says: ''Their physique is not materially different from that of the Tamuls. They are of 

pale brown complexion and 

* These statements are sustained by Captain Harkness. (Pricliard, Natural History of Man, I, pp. 253-4.) 

Turanian type of features. Some individuals have a high degree of personal beauty, almost Aryan in type."* Dr. John 

Davy, after describing a fine,. 

Fig. 57.—A Dravidian of the Toda tribe, Nilghiri Hills, in southern India. Supposed to represent the stock from which 

Adam sprang. Skin of the color of "burnt umber." 

* Brace, Races of the Old World, pp. 144,146.

albino girl of Ceylon, adds: "It is easy to conceive that an accidental variety of the kind might propagate, and that the 

White race of mankind is sprung from such an accidental variety. The [East] Indians are of this opinion; and there is a 

tradition or story among them in which this origin is assigned to us."* Of the moral qualities of the aborigines of India 

in general, the following high testimony is rendered by General Briggs: f "The man of the ancient race scorns an 

untruth, and seldom denies the commission even of a crime that he may have perpetrated, though it lead to death. He is 

true to his promise, hospitable and faithful to his guest, devoted to his superiors, and is always ready to sacrifice his 

own life in the service of his chief." 

On the whole, I think the Dravidian presents rather the most probable point of connection between the Adamites and 

the older races. 

The ethnological affinities of the posterity of Adam have been already traced,^: and need not be repeated in this place. 

* Davy, Account of the Island of Ceylon. 

t Briggs, in Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions, Vol. XIII. 

% Chapters iii, iv and v. It has been maintained by some ethnologists that the Caucasians, so-called, do not constitute a 

single race. Schaffarik says: "On one side the so-called Semites, that is, Arabs and Jews, and on the other the Finns 

and Turks, are so very distinct, linguistically, from the Indo-Europeans, that we cannot possibly place them as stems of 

the same race in a common circle of relationship." (Schaffarik, Slavische Alterthumer, I, pp. 25, 26.) But, as to the 

Finns and Turks, it is not claimed that they are coracial with the Indo-Europeans. As to the Semites, every physical 

and monumental indication points to their affiliation with the Aryan stock; and we even get, in the primitive Accadian, 

some linguistic glimpses of a common ethnic status. (Compare Sir Henry Rawlinson, Journal Geographical Society, 

London, 1873, "On the Nationality of the Hazareh.") Theodor Poesche asks: "How shall we include in one 

The genealogical tree of the types of mankind may be represented by a diagram like that on pages 352-3. Any diagram 

like this, however, must necessarily be, to a large extent, tentative. Nevertheless, science is attaining constantly to 

more exact knowledge respecting the affinities of human types, and each year's results enable us to construct tables 

more reliable than before. It must be distinctly understood, however, that the doctrine of Preadamitism does not depend 

on the correctness of any general table of affinities. It only implies the truth of the single feature of the genealogical 

tree, which represents the Adamites as springing from some point above the base, instead of standing, where I have 

put the Australians, at the base. Any research into the genealogy of races must be regarded, therefore, as only a 

pendant to the main discussion; though a line of research to which we naturally turn as soon as we entertain the 

conception of races older than Adam. 

race Lapps with globular [kugelformigen] heads; pronounced 'longheads,' as in Sweden; small and graceful South 

Arabians with blueblack hair, and only sparse beards; and gigantic, blonde and heavybearded Germans?" (Poesche, 

Die Arier, Ein Beitrag zur historischen Anthropologic, Jena, 1878, p. 6.) Here again we recognize the Lapps as 

Mongoloids; and as to the other types mentioned, I quite agree with the majority of anthropologists, that they are not 

so physically divergent from the predominantly mesocephalic Aryans as to justify the recognition of racial distinctness. 

Anglo-Saxons 

Ombro-Latins Achaians Kelts Thracians slavs Scythians L_ I I L

Chapter 22 

The Cradle of Humanity and Dispersion of the Black Races 

I. THE CRADLE OF HUMANITY. 

ANOTHER inquiry to which attention may appropriately be turned in this connection, is that concerning the earliest 

home of mankind, and the method of their dispersion over the earth. If all mankind have descended from one primitive 

pair, which is not probable, it is legitimate to search for their dwelling-place. If the earliest representatives of humanity 

appeared in considerable numbers, as every other new type seems to have revealed itself, it is not at all probable that 

they appeared simultaneously in different quarters of the world. The supposition is opposed to the observed fact of 

lines of relationships converging toward one type and one place. It is a fact, also, that the progress of human dispersion 

over the earth has been remarked during the period of written history. We have traditional, and even historical, 

information concerning the spread of races and nations into regions remoter from an assumed primitive center. Most of 

the islands of Polynesia have been populated since the Christian Era. "All the oceanic islands," says Peschel, "that is, 

such as lie at considerable distances from continents, have, with few exceptions, been found uninhabited by European 

navigators."* This was the case with 

* Peschel, Ausland, Jahrgang 1869, S. 1106. the Bermudas, the Azores, the Madeiras, Fernando Noronha, Trinidad, St. 

Helena, Ascension, Tristan d'Acunha, as well as the Falklands, Marion Crozet, the Kerguelens, the Mascarenes, St. 

Paul, Amsterdam, and even the large islands of New Zealand. Some traditional, and even historical, recollections of 

primitive movements are well known to be in possession of the Chinese; and these concern all the other great ethnic 

divisions of central, eastern and northern Asia. The Japanese and Malays also possess remote traditions. These all 

point, as we shall see, to a more restricted geographical range of mankind in very early times. Many facts indicate the 

progressive dispersion of mankind from some central region. We may therefore seek, on scientific grounds, for the 

dwelling-place of the first beings who could be pronounced human. 

I shall not occupy space to enter into the details of the evidence; but the nature of the evidence ought, perhaps, to be 

briefly pointed out. (1) We have the direction of known movements of migration over the earth. These, it is true, 

concern chiefly the nations of the Mediterranean race; though to a considerable extent, also, tribes and peoples of the 

Mongoloid and even the African stocks. Most of the movements of the White and Brown races have been from central 

and southern Asia. The chief exceptions will appear in the sequel. (2) A large proportion of the animals and plants 

(except forest growths) which have become useful to man, are known to have had their origin in the Orient. Of 770 

species of plants used by man for food, 565 come from the eastern and 204 from the western hemisphere. Of the 237 

amylaceous, or starch-yielding plants, 191 originated in the Old World and 45 in the New.* (3) Man, as an animal, is 

unclothed and possessed of a delicate skin. All naked land-animals are natives of warm countries; and, indeed, they 

must be to endure ordinary climatic vicissitudes. Man, similarly, it may confidently be argued, made his advent in a 

region where the elements did not oppose his coming. Primitively he was a tropical animal, and only wandered into 

colder zones as he had learned to protect himself by artificial coverings. (4) The mammalian fauna of the oriental 

world is highest and most approximated to the type of man; and on the principle of consistence of chorographic and 

organic correlations, it should be inferred that man is not only a tropical, but an oriental animal. The four great 

continental regions, as has been often remarked, present a graduated succession in the rank of their mammalian faunas. 

Australia is Marsupial and lowest. South America is Edentate, and next in rank. North America, with its Herbivorous 

fauna, stands third. The Orient—Eurasia—with its carnivorous mammals, stands highest. Palaeontology informs us that 

a similar faunal gradation of these quarters of the world had been established in Tertiary time. The Orient was long 

highest in rank; and now that the event has shown man to have been the destined culmination of organic improvement, 

it becomes apparent that the Orient was long designated as the appointed birth-place of the human species. This 

indication can scarcely be mistaken; and it concurs with the other evidences adduced, f

* United States Patent Office Report, 1859, p. 299, and especially p. 361. 

f This subject has been discussed by Professor James D. Dana, in his Address before the American Association for the 

Advancement 

This mode of reasoning, evidently, may be carried still further. The carnivores are not the highest type of mammals 

below man, the anthropoid apes, standing next to man, ought to afford more conclusive and more precise indications 

than the most abundant carnivorous fauna. Where are the Primates next below man found most abundantly at the 

present time? For the purpose of answering this question, I have compiled the table on the next page.* In the first 

column is designated the highest order of mammals, with the two sub-orders and eight families comprised in it, 

arranged in the order of rank. In the succeeding columns are indicated the numbers of species of each order, suborder 

and family known to exist in each of the Zoological regions named at the top. These regions may be defined in a 

general way as follows: The Palcearctic Region embraces all Europe, all Asia, except Hindustan, the Malay peninsula 

and southern Arabia, and includes Africa as far as the Tropic of Cancer. The Ethiopian Region embraces all Africa 

south of the Tropic of Cancer, and includes Madagascar and the neighboring Malagasy islands. The Oriental Region 

embraces the southern peninsulas of Asia and the Malay archipelago. The Australian Region embraces Australia, 

Austro-Malasia, Polynesia and New Zealand. The Neo-Tropical Region embraces all South America, the Antilles, and 

Mexico as far as the Tropic of Cancer. The JVearctic Region embraces all North America north of the tropic. 

of Science, 1855, p. 33, et seq. See also the present writer's Reconciliation of Science and Religion, p. 370; and 

Peschel, Das Ausland, Jahrgang 1869; Caspari, Urgeschichte der Menschheit, I Bd., 2 Buch, 5, Die Wiege des 

Menschengeschlechts und die Rassenausbreitung, Vol. I, pp. 182-219. 

* From Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals. 

Here the Palaearctic, Ethiopian and Oriental regions embrace what I designated above, the Oriental continent. Each of 

these three regions, however, contains, as the table shows, at least fifty per cent, more carnivorous mammals than 

either of the other regions, and it still appears that the Old World presents a fauna most harmonized with the 

superiority of man, and stands signalized as the appointed cradle of mankind. More precisely, southern and 

southeastern Asia bear the strongest characteristics of this kind; though Africa stands conspicuously related to this 

Oriental region in the dominance of carnivores. 

But searching more particularly for the distribution of the Primates, we find that South America and Mexico afford 114 

species, Ethiopia 104, and the Oriental region 66.* Primates in general, therefore, give slight precedence to South 

America; but when

* Murray has given a map showing the preponderance of monkeys by means of a dark belt, including equatorial 

America on the west, and stretching in a band about twenty degrees wide, across Africa, and thence to Farther India 

and Borneo. 

we analyze the order, we observe that the American Primates occupy the lowest position, while the Ethiopian and 

Oriental Primates are higher. In these two regions, also, occur the only apes known in the world. These facts still point 

out the Ethiopian and Oriental regions (in the stricter sense) as best fitted for the reception of the human animal. 

It is suggestive that the honors should be divided between Africa and southeastern Asia. These regions, thus united in 

honors, may be only the extremities of an ancient continent now largely wasted, whose surface was the grand theater 

of the earliest activities of man. That continent would have been located in the Indian ocean, and would have included 

the Malagasy archipelago (Madagascar and contiguous islands), and would have stretched northeastward to the Malay 

peninsula. Now, this happens to be a conclusion already reached, on more general zoological and geological grounds. 

M. Milne-Edwards, some years ago,* suggested that an extensive area, which he designated the "Mascarene 

continent," had disappeared from a region situated southeast of Africa. More recently Mr. Sclater, an eminent English 

ornithologist, has given the name Lemuria to a supposed obliterated land including the Mascarene continent of Milne- 

Edwards, and stretching across the Indian ocean to Ceylon and Sumatra, and including the Laccadives and Maldives. 

There are indications that the Lemuroid Primates were developed within this region. Representative species occur at 

the now detached extremities, and Lemurs are unknown in other regions. Many other forms which occur in the 

Malagasy islands reappear, or their close representatives reappear, in the Malay region. Among these are several 

genera of 

* Milne-Edwards, in Comtes Rendus, 15th April 1872, pp. 1030-34 birds. Beccari, in a recent work on the geographical 

distribution of palms,* after describing the difficulties of the dispersion of their fruits, reaches the conclusion that when 

we find two congeneric species of palms or other plants upon widely separated lands, it is reasonable to infer that such 

lands were once united. On the Mascarene islands, in Ceylon, the Nicobars, at Singapore, on the Moluccas, New 

Guinea, in Australia and Polynesia, occur various species of Phychosperma, all very difficult of dissemination. In this 

case, as in so many others, the indications of botanical distribution harmonize with those of zoological distribution. "In 

order to explain," he says, "the presence of closely related palm-forms in localities so separated, we must assume the 

former existence of obliterated lands in the very region where the Indian ocean, with its storms and tempests, is to-day 

exclusive monarch — exactly in the region where we must locate the hypothetical Lemuria, in order to explain the 

otherwise incomprehensible facts of the geographical distribution of animals." For such reasons, it is considered 

probable that these distant regions were once united, f Now, when we examine the soundings of 

* O. Beccari, Malesia, Raccolta di Osservazioni botaniche intorno alle piante dell arcipelago Indomalese e Papuano, 

Genua, 1878. 

t Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. I, pp.76, 276, 285-92, 328, 335. See also pp. 357-9, and The 

Malay Archipelago; Peschel, Races of Man, p. 32; Haeckel, Naturliche Schbpfungsgeschichte, 4th ed., pp. 321, 619; R. 

Owen, Proceedings Geographical Society, London, 1862; Murray, Geographical Distribution of Mammals, pp. 68-71; 

Hooker, Flora of Australia, 1859, "Introductory Essay," p. lv. 

This continent, as Peschel suggests, would correspond with the Indian Ethiopia of Claudius Ptolemaeus. It occupies, 

moreover, nearly the position assigned by numerous ecclesiastical writers to the Scriptural Paradise. See Lactantius, 

Instit. Divince, ii, 13; Bede, De Mundi Constit., p. 326; Hrabamus Maurus, De Universo; Kosthe Indian ocean, we find, 

correspondingly, that the graduations in depth are entirely consonant with the hypothesis of a primitive but now wasted 

continent.* Lemuria lies in the region indicated by the facts of geographical distribution of Carnivores and higher

Primates, as the quarter of the world reserved for the first appearance of the human being. It is now generally admitted 

that man's birthplace was in a region covered at present by the waters of the Indian ocean. f 

The general position of the hypothetical continent of Lemuria will be understood from the "Chart of Progressive 

Dispersions." On this chart the blue 

mas Indicopleustes: xpctrviavixij ronoypayta, torn, ii., p. 188. Ed. Montfaucon (in Collectio nova Patrum Gnecorum, 

Paris, 1707), and the anonymous geographer of Ravenna in Geogr., lib. i, cap. 6. So Columbus, when he discovered a 

land supposed to occupy a position southeast of the Ganges, thought himself in "proximity to the earthly Paradise." 

According to a passage in the Bagaveda Gita, Adima and Heva were created in Ceylon. (Jacolliot, The Bible in India, 

pp. 195-9.) For my own part, I do not look for Paradise, the Eden of our race, in the region populated by the sooty and 

prognathous types of primitive humanity, but in the more northern region which received the Adamites. 

*Consult the "Chart of Progressive Dispersions" at the end of this work. On this subject Mr. Andrew Murray employs 

the following language: "We may safely infer that a great continent stretched across between Africa and India. The 

numerous shoals in the Indian Ocean are one indication of this; but a much more important one is the fact of the fauna 

of India and Africa, belonging, with few exceptions, to the same families which are peculiar to those two districts. So 

far as regards mammals, abundant illustrations in support of this will be found throughout the following pages, 

passim." (Murray, Geographical Distribution of Mammals, p. 29.) 

t North of the "Lemurian" continent, the greater part of India was, during Tertiary time, covered by the sea. I shall 

venture the opinion that it was in Tertiary time that the primitive representatives of humanity were upon the earth. See 

chapter xxvii. 

color is used exclusively for water-lines and geographical indications. The dotted blue lines follow the soundings of 

fifteen thousand feet; and from their disposition it will at once be understood what regions are most likely to be the 

sites of obliterated lands. Thus the western half and all the northern and eastern portions of the Indian ocean lie on the 

landward side of the line of fifteen thousand feet. From southeastern Asia shallow soundings extend beyond Australia 

and New Zealand. They also occupy large areas in the tropical Pacific. Lines of shallower soundings show that the 

marine contour lines of one thousand feet pass between Celebes and New Guinea, joining to the Asiatic continent all 

the islands lying to the northwest, and leaving united with the Australian continent all the islands lying to the southeast 

as far as the Louisiade archipelago. These lines are thought to indicate ancient land areas. Other land areas are 

supposed to have existed in the Polynesian region, and to have stretched nearly or quite to the region now occupied by 

South America. A similar belt of islands and shoals stretches toward North America. On the other side of South 

America, a land connection (not here indicated) is thought likely to have existed in early Tertiary times with western 

Africa, and to have afforded the means of communication for African types between Africa and South America. It is 

known that in Tertiary times a great sea or ocean stretched from the southeastern peninsula of Asia over much of 

Hindustan, Arabia, all western Asia, and most of southern Europe, covering the basin of the present Mediterranean, but 

not connecting with the Atlantic ocean. It connected, perhaps, with the Pacific on the east. These and other past 

conditions in the distribution of land and water have been profoundly discussed by Wallace * and others. Caspari f has 

given a chart of ancient lands, in connection with an attempt to indicate the early distribution of mankind. There is 

little difficulty, on geological grounds, in mapping areas which were covered by the sea and areas which were probably 

continental, in each successive period of geological history; but it is extremely difficult to determine that the shores of 

land and sea were thus and so at the time when man began to spread himself over the earth. For these reasons, I have 

not thought it best to attempt to represent precisely any ancient continental configurations. The former probable 

conditions of continental boundaries and connections it is indispensable, however, to keep in mind, in any attempt to 

trace the slow progress of racial divergence and dispersion into the regions of the earth now inhabited by man. 

II. DISPERSION OF THE BLACK RACES.

Though it is probable that beings properly human existed who were even inferior to the Australians, we may begin 

with the Australians. These, as before stated, constitute the lowest surviving racial type, and in all probability represent 

a primordial divergence from the primitive human stock. This turned eastward, while a corresponding primordial 

divergence turned westward. In other words, one was destined to afford populations to Africa, and the other to 

Australian, Malayan and Asiatic regions. On the 

* Alfred R.Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, 2 vols., Am. ed., New York, 1876. Also The Malay 

Archipelago. 

t Otto Caspari, Die TJrgeschichte der Menschheit, mit Rilcksicht auf die nat&rliche Entwickelung des frilhesten 

Geisteslebens, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1873. 

chart, which is intended especially to illustrate this and the three following chapters, I have employed continuous lines 

to denote ascertained movements of human populations. These are of three different colors, according to the dominant 

color of the race, as explained on pages 52 and 53. A broken line denotes an ethnic trail which has subsequently 

become covered by the sea, or by other layers of population, or else is, for other reasons, merely conjectural. Arrows 

indicate the direction of the movement. Where a name is written, the contiguous arrow denotes the stem to which the 

name appertains. To distinguish the different races of one color, I have employed plain, wavy, crenulated and beaded 

lines; and the same method is employed for discriminating the different families of the White race. 

The eastward stem must have extended the Australian type to the farther extremity of Lemuria, which was among the 

Sunda islands. If there existed no land communication at that time with Australia, the water passage from Timor was 

quite practicable, if, indeed, this island was not then a part of Australia. Thus, I think, Australia became overspread 

with the Australian type. Australians, of course, remained distributed continuously westward to the original seat of the 

stock in Lemuria, but the subsequent disappearance of Lemurian land has broken all connection between Australia and 

the ancient home of the Australians. I have therefore represented the hypothetical course of Australian migration by a 

broken line. 

It cannot be doubted that the Australian type once extended over many other regions from which it has since been 

displaced. In addition to the physical resemblances heretofore pointed out, M. Alfred Maury informs us that traces 

exist of their presence in Hindustan, in a period more remote than its first occupancy by Dravidians. "Mr. Logan," he 

says, "has caught certain analogies between the Dravidian idioms and the Australian tongues. ... A profound study of 

the names of number in all the idioms of the Dravidian family has revealed to him the existence of a primary numerical 

system purely binary — which is met with again in the Australian languages. . . . The Dravidian idioms have thus 

chased before them the Australian tongues at a primordial epoch that now loses itself in the night of time."* In 

accordance with these ideas I have carried the Australian line across the southern part of Hindustan. 

Now, as the group of islands known as Melanesia is covered by Papuans, and as the Melanesian region was once 

annexed to Australia, it appears that the Papuan type developed from the Australian in those remote quarters, and 

spread itself beyond, even to New Caledonia and Fiji. It is quite possible that an ancient twig of Papuans extended 

over the Philippines, leaving the Aeta there as a remnant of themselves, and even pushed on northward, by Formosa 

and the Loochoos, to the Japanese islands, leaving the Ainos as witnesses of the northward extent of the modified 

Papuan type. I shall indicate, however, another supposable origin for the Ainos. 

Tasmania was also inhabited by Papuans, but I scarcely think that Australian appendage was reached from Melanesia. 

It seems more probable that at one time all eastern Australia was in the possession of the Papuan or prepapuan type, as 

far as Tasmania, and that the Australians, pressing from the northwest and west, drove the Papuans almost completely

from Australia, leaving the Tasmanian population an isolated 

* Alfred Maury, in Nott and Gliddon's Indigenous Races, p. 75-6. fragment. Such an opinion is corroborated by the 

presence of Australian or Papuan-like natives with frizzled hair, on the north coast, and in the interior of northern 

Australia; presenting the phenomenon of an incompletely differentiated type.* The Tasmanians, moreover, were not 

characteristically Papuan, and some ethnologists have proposed to regard them a distinct race. It is probable they 

presented a reminiscence of the transition from the Australian type. If we class the Tasmanians with Papuans, their 

marked divergence from that race must be taken as evidence of the bifurcation of the prepapuan stem at a remote 

epoch, perhaps before reaching the Australian continent. I have accordingly represented the northern twig as quite 

disconnected with Australia. 

Should we see ground for assuming the Papuans for the lowest and original race, we could regard this race as spread 

from its Lemurian home over the whole of Australia and Tasmania; then the Australian type, becoming differentiated, 

displaced the ancestral Papuans from Australia, leaving Tasmania and Melanesia to remain occupied by the primitive 

stock. On this supposition, too, the tufted-haired Hottentots would be the direct derivatives of the tufted-haired 

Papuans, and some ethnologists might be better pleased to see these races in genetic juxtaposition. Possibly such a 

scheme would more nearly represent the succession of events, but it is opposed by the superior character of a large part 

of the Papuans in comparison with Australians. 

In tracing the ramifications of the westward or preafrican stem, much, of course, must be left to conjecture; though we 

have some good facts on which 

* On this commixture see Earl, in Journal Geographical Society, London, Vol. XVI, 239. 

to base an inductive procedure. In the first place, the Hottentots most resemble Australians in color, in hair and in 

intellectual traits. They must be, therefore, most closely connected with Australians. The Namaquas are recognized as 

closely affiliated, and the Bushmen cannot be regarded as diverging from the same stem at a very remote period. 

Secondly, the Hottentots are known to have moved southward from the eastern equatorial region of the continent. We 

may, therefore, presume that they reached Africa in the vicinity of the easterly cape. Thirdly, they have been pressed 

from the north by the Kaffir nation; this nation, therefore, made its appearance on the north of the Hottentots. Fourthly, 

the whole family of Bantu Negroes is linguistically and physically related to the Kaffirs; hence the Bantus have 

ramified westward from the prekaffir stock, and represent its early condition, not its present one. Fifthly, the Soudan 

populations are true Negroes, and hence ramified from the original Negro stem; but their linguistic divergences 

indicate that they represent a remote divarication. Sixthly, their movements are known to have been toward the west; 

and this accords with the hypothesis of their origin. Seventhly, the Fulah are ethnically Berberic, and we must connect 

them with the Berber stem. Eighthly, they are known to have penetrated from northwestern Africa, and this indicates 

the direction in which their trail must be drawn. Finally, we may feel confidence in connecting the Somali, the Galla 

and the Danakil with the Himyaritic Arabs; and also in running a line of Semitic Arabs across the Red Sea into the 

region east of the Nile, and even into the heart of the Saharan oases. A study of the chart will indicate that the lines 

have been drawn in accordance with these principles. There are several tribes, however, like the Niam-JSTiam, the 

Fans and the Fundi, about which I have felt especial uncertainty; while it is also obvious that many tribes and nations, 

like the Mandingoes and the Hausa tribes, are so hybridized that a true chart would show them connected with two or 

more races or stocks. 

It seems highly presumable that Africa was occupied by indigenes at so remote a period that the northern, as well as 

other parts of the continent, must have come into their possession long before the invasions of the Mongoloids or the 

Hamites by the Isthmus of Suez. Beyond this presumption we have not a ray of information; and I have not felt 

justified, therefore, in attempting to trace the movements of the Black races of Africa northward beyond the twentieth 

parallel of latitude.*

* The physical contrasts between the Australians and Negroes naturally suggest the query whether these stocks do not 

represent two distinct human origins — their genealogical divergence dating hack in prehuman times. I judge, 

however, that if their point of divergence were prehuman, the amount of the divergence would be greater than it is. The 

Hottentots, moreover, are a connecting link next the Australian side, while theTasmanians, Papuans, Bechuanas,. 

Makololos and other Kaffirs exhibit progressive approximations to the Negro side, and we thus seem to retain 

reminiscences of an actual passage between Australians and Negroes. I have, therefore,, felt considerable confidence in 

laying down a physical connection between these two ethnic types within the human period.

Chapter 23 

Dispersion of the Asiatic Mongoloids 

FROM the preAustralian trunk diverged, probably in western Lemuria, a sturdy and prolific stem which was destined 

to cover Asia and the Malayan regions with dense populations, and to send its streams of migration over all the New 

World. This may be styled the premongoloid stem. It was the great stock from which the straight-haired peoples of all 

parts of the world have been derived. It represents a marked divergence in ethnic characters, and leads to the inference 

that a long period elapsed in the progress of the differentiation. Still, so far as we can judge, the dispersive movement 

had not, as yet, made wide progress. The Euplocam Dravidians are not to be regarded as budded from this stock, but 

rather directly, and at a later date, from the Euplocam Australians. 

The premongoloid stem bifurcated at an early date, as I have conjectured, into eastern and western branches. 

Neglecting for the present the western, it is apparent that we must conceive the eastern branch as further ramifying, in 

primitive times, before the current of population had reached central Asia. The result of this was a stream of 

population setting northeastward toward the mouth of the Amur, and another setting southeastward toward the Malayan 

peninsulas. The oldest issue of the southeastward stream seems to have been the Malay population and ethnic type. We 

have no certain information of the advent of the Malays from the northwest; but, as they are distinctly Mongoloids, 

and we cannot admit an autochthonous origin, it seems reasonable to trace them backward to a region which is known 

to be the radiant point of other types of Mongoloids. The date of their divergence was earlier than the development of 

the fundamental type of languages spoken in central and northern Asia. The Malay language seems to have had an 

indigenous growth. 

From the Malayan region we are able to trace them progressively over the islands of the Pacific. The greatest purity of 

the type is preserved in the Sunda islands and the peninsula of Malacca. In migrating eastward, they commingled, to 

some extent, with the Papuans of Melanesia, and hence arose the so-called Micronesian type, which on one 

geographical border is predominantly Papuan, and on the opposite predominantly Malayan. From Micronesia, tradition 

and history are able to trace the Malayan strain in its migrations to the Marshall islands; thence to the Mulgraves; 

thence to the Samoan; thence successively to the Society, Marquesas and Sandwich islands. The eastward migration is 

known to have extended, probably from the Society islands, as far as Pitcairn and Easter islands. From the Samoan 

group a colony diverged to the Friendly islands, and at a later date reached New Zealand.* 

It is an ethnological surprise of no little interest to find the Malay type as far west as Madagascar. We receive some 

hint toward a solution of this puz- * On the purport of traditions and the evidence from language bearing on 

Polynesian migrations, see F. Miiller, Notara-Expedition, Ethnographie, pp. 23, 24, 68-70; Dunmore-Lang, View of the 

Origin and Migrations of Polynesian Nations; Quatrefages, Les Polynesiens et leur Migrations (Revue de Deux 

Mondes, Feb. 1864); O. F. Peschel, Die Wanderungen der Siid-See Vblker (Ausland, 1864, Races of Man, pp. 348-52). 

zle in learning that the south of Ceylon and the Maldives are also held by Malays. It seems probable that before 

Lemuria disappeared a westward colony strayed from the primitive seat, as the Papuan type also wandered back to the 

Andaman islands. We have evidence that the migration was from the Sunda islands, in the fact that the Hovas of 

Madagascar breed the Indian zebu instead of the native cattle, and manufacture iron by the use of a singular bamboo 

bellows, which is used nowhere else except in the Malay islands. The chart is constructed in accordance with these 

views. 

The southeastward stream of populations from the Mongoloid radiant point issued, subsequently to the Malayan 

departure, in a succession of movements into the Malayo-Chinese quarter of Asia. One migration introduced the

Peguans, another the Burmese, another the Anamese. These all stand in close linguistic relation. The Thai, or Siamese, 

represent still another migration, and they stand linguistically somewhat distinct from their neighbors on either hand. 

Other rills of population flowed from the same center into the sub-Himalayan regions, while the Bodshi of Thibet may 

be regarded as the residuum. Some representatives of the Thibetan stock seem to have been carried away by the great 

northeastward stream, to which I shall presently recur, and their posterity are seen in the isolated Sifan of the provinces 

of Shensi and Sse-tshuen in China. 

We must next endeavor to trace the dispersion of the populations constituting what I have designated the great 

northeastward stream, and in doing this we shall discover the evidences of its real existence. 

The Chinese seem to have exemplified the first ethnic and geographic divergence. As the Chinese language is the most 

rudimentary of all existing Mongoloid tongues, it is reasonable to assume that the primitive Chinese were located 

nearest the point of origin of the Asiatic stock. According to Legge's interpretation of the Chinese classics, Yao, with 

his hordes of primitive Chinese, came from the north, pursuing, along the east side, the valley of the Hwangho river, in 

the region of its southward course.* This movement, Von Richthofen asserts, is contradicted by all traditions and later 

histories, as well as by the impracticability of the route indicated. He maintains that, according to the books, the 

Chinese nationality originated between 36° and 38° north latitude, and 77° and 86° east longitude; that at a later date 

they had moved north of eastward, along the northern slope of the Kwen-Lun mountains, and settled in a region 

between 38° and 39° 30' north, and 95° and 102° 30' east, along the borders of the Ho-lin-shan river, an upper 

tributary of the Hwangho; thence they progressed southeastward to the great bend of the river toward the east, and 

settled on the Wei tributary, f The Khotanese, living in early times near the western border of the Tarym basin, or 

Desert of Gobi, were closely allied to the Chinese. We thus catch our first glimpses of the Chinese people in a region 

nearly as far west as Cashgar, but there is no documentary evidence of their passage through the gates of Cashgar. 

From this seat their national movement has been toward the east. 

On the contrary, the peoples of the great Turkish 

* " Tims," he says, "the present Shansi was the cradle of the Chinese empire." (Legge, Shoo-King, Prolegomena, p. 

189.) 

t Von Richthofen, China, pp. 297, 341. It is asserted by this author that every respectable sinologue dissents from 

Legge's conclusion. 

and Mongolian stems, since the dawn of tradition, have been in progress southwestward and westward. The Uigurs, 

the oldest of the Turkish stems, issued from the region of the Orkhov and the Selenga. In progress of time they had 

extended themselves to the southwest of the Tarym basin; and peoples of Turkish affinities lay scattered all the way 

through eastern Mongolia, between the older and newer home of the Uigurs.* The Turkish Kirghis originated, also, in 

the region of the Selenga, and the space between the mountains Khangai-Tangnu and Sayan. The Turkish Yakuts still 

linger about the northern cradle of the Turkish family. Soon after the Christian Era the Turks were rulers of central 

Asia. The Sien-pi, who also came from the east, overspread all the regions held by the Turks, and maintained 

dominion from 200 A.d. to 400 A.d. They then disappeared; and, during the following century, Turkish tribes, always 

pouring in from the northeast, resumed supremacy in the same regions, and maintained it for six hundred years. Each 

one of these tribes, in succession,— Tukin, Hwei-he, Uigur, Kirghis — comes first from the northeast, and spreads 

itself over central Asia, and thence through the various mountain passes to the countries of the west.f The Turks now 

extend from the Amur and Lena, and the upper Yenesei, in broken tribes, as far as the west border of central Asia, and 

more continuously westward from this border to beyond the Bosphorus, with a "mosaic" of inter- * Von Richthofen, 

China, p. 49. The conclusions are based on the Chinese books.

t Von Richthofen, China, pp. 50, 51, etc. Some investigators think the Turkish stems to have sprung from the Altai, 

and moved eastward; but this, according to Von Richthofen, is only a fable, since certain information gives the Uigurs 

and Kirghis a northeastern origin. 

calated Iranians, Semites, Slavs, Mongols and undetermined stocks. The Osmanli are extensively mixed. 

As to the primitive Mongol stock, it is first revealed in the northeast, and each ethnic movement has discharged a 

deluge of Mongols into central Asia, and thence into the countries accessible through the historic passes of the 

mountains. The Mongol stem rises into view in the beginning of the thirteenth century, in the region of the Selenga. 

Under Genghis Khan, they stormed west and south, and overran all China, and extended their sway from the Japan Sea 

to the Danube and the Persian Gulf. Part of the Turks then ruling in central Asia were crushed, part absorbed, and part 

driven to the Oder and to Hungary. Under Timur, a second Mongolian deluge swept westward over Asia. The 

Mongols, however, left no permanent settlements beyond the borders of Mongolia, except those now represented by 

the Hazara and Aimaq, between Cabul and Herat, and the Kalmuks in the valley of the Volga. 

The Tungusic stem of Altaians is also known to have dwelt as hunters, in primitive times, in the forests between the 

Ussuri and the coast of the Japan Sea. Their movement, in later time, has been southward, but only to a limited extent. 

The Tungusie Khitan, in A.d. 907, displaced the power of the Turks from eastern Mongolia and northern China. 

It thus appears probable that these three ethnic stocks —the Turks, the Tunguses and the Mongols — first became 

differentiated in the region of the valleys of the Amur and the Lena. There is no ground to seek for their national 

origin farther west or south. 

In the successive movements of these Asiatics toward the south and west, the physical characters of the continent have 

determined the routes pursued. These have been as follows: (1) From the "Dsungarian Trough," whose position and 

northwest-southeast trend are indicated by the lakes Zaisan and Uliungur, east of Lake Balkash, down the valley of the 

Irtysh, and thence to the Urals. (2) Over the Talki chain from the Dsungarian Trough into the valley of the Hi, flowing 

northwest into Lake Balkash, and from this valley southwestward to the broad basin of the Jaxartes, and thence to the 

Oxus, and from that to the Iranian Highland. Here this stream divides. One branch goes west into Persia, Mesopotamia 

and Syria; the other over the pass of Bamian, or Bholan, into India. Of the conquering and destructive hordes under 

Genghis Khan and his sons, one branch took the northern route, and the other the route south of the Caspian Sea into 

Syria. Of the hordes under Timur, a portion pursued the latter route, and another portion turned toward India, along the 

same course pursued some centuries earlier by Yue-tshi, and later by Timur's grandson, Sultan Baber, who seated 

himself on the throne of Delhi, as Grand Mogul. 

Now, it will not be maintained that the innumerable populations which have poured out of northeastern Asia were 

autochthonous in those regions. Their ancestors had arrived there in earlier times from some other region or regions. It 

is not supposable that such region was farther north or northeast. It is not supposable that these so-called Altaics 

arrived across Behring's Straits from America. It only remains to assume that the ancestors of these nations had, at a 

very remote period, moved toward the east and north. This is exactly the movement progressing among the oldest 

known people of Asia, at the date when the light of history is first thrown upon them. I think we may recognize the 

Chinese migration as showing the set of the primitive ethnic stream. We may, therefore, regard the Chinese as a 

branch of this primitive stream, and conceive the main current as trending beyond, into the valleys of the Amur and 

Lena; whence over-population could find most ready relief in a reflex movement along the flanks of the Great Altai 

and the Khin-Gan mountains, into the great Tarym basin. This hypothesis accords with all our knowledge of the early 

history of the Malayo-Chinese. They came from the region of Thibet. Their languages are Mongoloid, but quite 

divergent, a fact which indicates a remote separation from the prechinese stock. The Miao-tse, or primitive inhabitants 

of China, still lingering in the mountains of the south, using stone implements, and speaking a tongue quite remote 

from the Chinese, must be regarded as originating after the divergence of the Thibetan twig from the great

northeastern branch. From this branch sprang also the Amos, and, finally, the Coreans, who were probably the 

ancestors of the Japanese. The primitive Coreans may be regarded as a distinct offshoot from the great northeastern 

current, or, perhaps more properly, a rill from the Tungusic branch of this current. In the latter case, we may conceive 

them as derived directly from the Mandchus. 

Max Miiller's view of the ethnic movements of the Asiatic Mongoloids, based wholly on linguistic relationships, 

assumed a general northward and a general southward tendency from a region not far removed from the position of the 

primitive Chinese on my chart. One of the southward migrations settled on the rivers Meikong, Meinam, Irawaddy and 

Brahmaputra, and formed the Thai tribes. A northern migration followed the courses of the Amur and Lena, founding 

the Tungusic tribes. A second southward migration extended as far as the Malay regions. A second northward is 

supposed to have founded the Mongol tribes, and to have passed westward along the chain of the Altai mountains. A 

third northward produced the Turkish peoples. A third southward tended toward Thibet and India, and finally 

overspread the Indian peninsula. These were the ancestors of the Tamuls. This scheme is framed on the assumption 

that all mankind are Adamites; but the lines of migration, bating the exact order of succession, are not essentially 

different from those which I have laid down, save that I do not regard Dravidians as descended from a Mongoloid 

type. 

I have, as yet, taken no account of the Ural-Altaics, who are generally regarded as included in the great Altaian family. 

It is certainly a rational supposition that they represent a European extension of the great reflected current of 

population setting along the Siberian plains at a time when the climate retained that softened character which must 

have prevailed when the Hairy Mammoth herded in Siberia. This is the commonly received opinion, and I have 

reproduced it on the chart. I have been strongly impressed with the conviction, however, that the UralAltaic or Finnish 

family may be traced to another origin. The Finns are known to have receded from central Europe within historic 

times. They are generally regarded as a relic, like the Basques, of the prehistoric peoples who preceded the Pelasgians 

and the Kelts in the occupancy of Europe. These prehistoric Mongoloids may have reached central and southern 

Europe by the Volga route, as so many other immigrants have done. But, as Mongoloid stonefolk are known to have 

dwelt, in very early times, in northern Africa, and as the Straits of Gibraltar are generally believed to have been an 

isthmus, within the human period, I would venture to suggest, as a hypothesis covering all the facts, that the great 

premongoloid stem gave off a branch, as before stated, which trended westward — the counterpoise of the great 

northeastern branch — and that the populations of the western branch spread themselves over most of the Asiatic 

countries which were destined to be afterward populated by the Mediterranean race. It was this people who left 

Turanian traces throughout all Assyro-Babylonia, Phoenicia and Arabia.* Directed by the configuration of the shores, 

they streamed through the Isthmus of Suez and occupied the southern border of the Mediterranean, throughout its 

whole extent. They passed, probably, to the large island of Atlantis then existing west of the "Pillars of Hercules." The 

Straits of Gibraltar were then as broad an isthmus as Suez,f and these people poured northward into Europe. They 

found a paradisiacal peninsula south of the Pyrenees, and retained it long as a favorite center of population, founding 

there an Iberian empire. \ Meanwhile, however, they pushed on northward of the great Mediterranean ocean, and, 

before historic times, had spread themselves to all parts of the mainland of Europe and to the contiguous islands. It 

was now the morning dawn of European history, and the dim light reveals them in the 

* See chapter x. 

.(.On the historical evidences of this statement see Humboldt, Views of Nature, Sabine's trans., Am. ed., pp. 278-81. 

"The Iberians," says Humboldt, "belong to the very oldest stock of European nations." The Basques are a remnant of 

these; their language, the Euskara, possesses no affinity with any of the surrounding dialects. 

rude condition of a people in the Stone Age.* Hamitic tribes now appear on the scene in the southeast, and Aryans 

followed them over the JEgean, and in another stream, passing north of the Black Sea, spread over Europe. By these

Asiatic and superior invaders the Troglodytes were partly destroyed, partly displaced, and partly absorbed. The 

continued pressure of Aryan populations has crowded the residue of the prehistoric Mongoloids of Europe 

progressively northward, and the populations of the Finnish stem are all which remains of them. 

I must turn back a moment to make further reference to the Mongoloids in Atlantis. There is evidence, both ancient 

and modern, that a country of considerable extent once lay in a region now mostly covered by the Atlantic ocean, in a 

position west of the Straits of Gibraltar. This was the "fabled Atlantis." Plato, who lived in the fourth century before 

Christ, has left on record most of the historical information which we possess on this subject. He cites the authority of 

a poem composed by Solon, two centuries earlier, in which that distinguished lawgiver pretends to reproduce some 

records preserved by the Egyptian priests under whom he had studied. He states that beyond the pillars of Hercules 

existed formerly an island larger than Africa and Asia united. It was the seat of a civilization comparable to that of 

Egypt. There were cities and palaces and temples. From this island went forth, at a date 9000 years before Solon, a 

powerful army which asserted control of western Europe, as far as Italy, known in Plato's time as Tyrrhenia, and made 

unsuccessful war on the Athenians. Another army had conquered all northern 

Africa as far as Egypt. The arms of Egypt gave it a repulse.* 

Now, we may believe there is some basis for these accounts, even if we receive the date of 9000 years as meaning only 

a remote period; and the vast extent assigned to the island as meaning only an island very large compared with those 

of the Mediterranean. As to the date of the expedition to Egypt, Plato tells us, collaterally, that it took place during the 

reigns of the Athenian kings Cecrops and Erechtheus. Now Cecrops, according to the "Marble of Paros,"f reigned 

1582 [some say 1450] b.c., and Erechtheus, 1409 B.c. 

Another version of the story of Atlantis is given by Theopompos, who wrote, also, in the fourth century before Christ. 

According to him, the information concerning Atlantis was given by Silenus to the ancient king Midas. \ Substantially, 

the two accounts agree, save that Theopompos says nothing about the invasion of Egypt. The Gauls possessed, also, 

traditions on this subject, which were collected by the Roman historian Timagenes, who lived in the first century 

before Christ. He represents that three distinct 

* Plato, Timceus and Critias, ed. Stallbaum, 1838, t. vii, pp. 99, 389. Jowett's translation of the Dialogues of Plato,Vol. 

II, pp. 462, 519-521, 588, 599, 607. According to the Abb£ Brasseur de Bourbourg, the inhabitants of central America 

retained traditions of a cataclysm which swallowed up a vast country in the region now covered by the Atlantic ocean. 

For some particulars relating to this tradition see Foster, Prehistoric Races of the U. S., pp. 394-9. 

t This,otherwise known as the " Parian Chronicle," was a chronological account of the principal events in Grecian and 

particularly in Athenian history during a period of 1318 years, from the reign of Cecrops to the archonship of 

Diagnetus, 264 B.C. (Anthon's Classical Dictionary, art. "Paros.") 

I See Aristotle, cited by Plutarch, Consolatio ad Apollonium, § 27, ed. Didot-Dttbner, p. 137. Compare Preller, 

Griechische Mythologie, 1st ed., Vol. I, p. 453. 

peoples dwelt in Gaul: (1) The indigenous population, which I suppose to be Mongoloids, who had long dwelt in 

Europe. (2) The invaders from a distant island, which I understand to be Atlantis. (3) The Aryan Gauls.* Marcellus, 

also, in a work on the Ethiopians, speaks of seven islands lying in the Atlantic ocean near Europe, which we may 

undoubtedly identify with the Canaries; but he adds that the inhabitants of these islands preserve the memory of a 

much greater island, Atlantis, which had, for a long time, exercised dominion over the smaller ones.f

Notwithstanding these historical references to an extinct island, Atlantis had been pronounced a myth until recent 

investigation gave it substance and reality. In 1873 Her Majesty's ship Challenger made soundings in the Atlantic 

ocean, off the coast of North Africa;^: and in 1874 the German frigate Gazelle made further soundings in the same 

region. In 1877 Commander Gorringe, of the United States sloop Gettysburg, discovered, about 150 miles from the 

Straits of Gibraltar, an immense bed of living pink coral, in 32 fathoms of water. These various series of soundings, 

when located on a map, indicate the existence of an extensive bank of comparatively shallow water, in the midst of 

which the Canaries and the Madeiras rise to the surface.§ The location of this newly discovered mountain in the bed of 

the Atlantic, lies within the fifteen thousand fathom line on the 

* The Gaulish recitals of Timagenes have been preserved by Ammianus Marcellinus (lib. xv, c. 9), and may be 

consulted in DidotMUller's Fragmenta Historicorum Grcecorum, III, 323. 

t Didot-Muller, Fragmenta Historicorum Grwcorum, IV, p. 443. 

% Sir C. Wyville Thomson, The Voyage of the Challenger, "The Atlantic," Vol. I, chap, ii, Appendix B, p. 93. 

§ See John James Wild, in Nature, for March 1, 1877, No. 383, p. 377. 

chart at the end of this work, and embraces the Canary and Madeira islands. Here is probably the stump of the ancient 

Atlantis.* This lost country was first inhabited by the Mongoloids, who, I think, found their way along the south shore 

of the Mediterranean. It was afterward seized by the Hamitic Berbers, who spread themselves westward from the 

Nilotic valley in early Egyptian times. During the historic period, the isolated Canaries have stood as the only inhabited 

remnants of Atlantis, and the detached and degenerate Guanches, when at length rediscovered, complained, "God 

placed us on these islands and then forsook and forgot us." 

The foregoing views, relative to the dispersion of the Asiatic Mongoloids, are represented in greater detail upon the 

chart of "Dispersion of Mankind." 

It remains to trace the prolongation of the Mongoloid stock of peoples into North and South America. 

* A "Miocene Atlantis," so styled, has been inferred by Unger and Goeppert, on the basis of the extinct floras of 

Europe and America; and this idea has been more fully elaborated by Heer and others. Leidy, Marsh and Cope have 

found, in the remains of extinct mammals of North America, similar indications of an ancient connection. This appears 

to have existed as late as Pliocene time; but it would be hazardous to affirm that it continued into human times, unless 

it can be shown that man had a preglacial existence. (See Oswald Heer, Flora Tertiaria Helvetica, Winterthur, 1855- 

59; G. de Saporta, in Annates des Sciences Naturelles, 1862, and Le Monde des Plantes avant Vapparition de 

VHomme, 1878; Unger Die Versunkene Insel Atlantis, Wien, 1860.)

Chapter 24 

Dispersion of the American Mongoloids 

AMERICAN ethnology is beset with perplexities which have baffled the best skill of investigators. Thanks, however, 

to the energy of a limited number of practical workers in the American field, we may reasonably hope to soon find 

ourselves advanced beyond the stage of guesses and speculations in which we have rested so long.* 

Science has but lately settled on the ethnic relation of the American indigenes. Following Blumenbach, popular opinion 

long admitted them as a distinct American or "copper-colored" race. It was soon manifest, however, that the Eskimo 

are profoundly distinct from the wild tribes of North America, as we 

* By act of Congress, Maj. J. W. Powell is placed in charge of a department of American ethnology. He is to have the 

full cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution, which has long been gathering the materials for final investigations. 

Prof. W. H. Dall has succeeded in bringing before the public an important body of facts concerning the natives of 

Alaska and contiguous regions. Mr. Stephen Powers has reported numerous interesting observations on the California 

Indians, where Gibbs, in the field of linguistics, had preceded him. Mr. H. H. Bancroft has given the public a rich 

thesaurus of facts touching the Indians of the Pacific coast, and Hon. L. H. Morgan has brought out a masterly 

discussion of the social and political institutions of the natives of America. Were less recent contributions to American 

ethnology to be cited, it would be necessary to mention the names of Gallatin, Schoolcraft, Catlin, Stephens, 

Catherwood, Squier, Daniel Wilson, Davis, Prescott, Kingsboro, Humboldt, del Rio, Orozco y Berra, Pimentel, 

Brasseur de Bourbourg, and a series of older, marvel-loving Spanish chroniclers. 

.). See especially Morton, Crania Americana. 

have seen, drew a dividing line through the continental populations, and discriminated dolichocephali and 

brachycephali. Finally, it has been agreed that all Americans are fundamentally Mongoloid. 

Respecting the origin of the American peoples, the diversity of opinion is almost ludicrous.* Polygenists have been 

ready to regard them as autochthonous. This view was most ably defended by L. Agassiz and J. C. Nott.f It is 

maintained by D. F. von Hellwald,^: who sharply denies the dispersion of mankind from some original abode in central 

Asia. Hon. L. H. Morgan regards the valley of the Columbia river in Oregon as the primitive Eden of America, the 

"seed-land of the Ganowanian family," § and he leaves the impression that he considers them autochthonous. Galindo 

transferred the primitive residence of the human race to America. Very recently Dr. 

* See, besides works cited beyond, Hugo Grotius, Dissertatio de origine gentium Americanarum, Amstelodami, 1642; 

Jean de Laet, Notes ad diss. H. Orotii de orig. gent. Americ, 1643; Jean de Laet, Responsio ad H. Orotii diss, de orig. 

gent. Amerie, 1644; Poisson, Animadversiones in originem Peruvianorum et Mexicanorum, Parisiis, 1644; Gottfried 

Wagner, De origimbus Americanis Dissertatio, Lipsiae v 1669; And. Itocha, Tratado unico y singulare del origen de 

los Indios occidentales del Peru,, Mexico, Santa Fey Chile, Lima, 1681; Engel, Essai sur cette question: comment 

VAmerique ast-elle ete peuplee d'hommes et d'animaux? Amsterdam, 1767; Philosophische Untersuchungen Xiber die 

Amerikaner, Berlin, 1769; Vater, Untersuchungen iiber Amerilea's Bevolkerung aus dem alten Continent, Leipzig, 

1810; McCulloch, Researclies philosophical and antiquarian, concerning the aboriginal history of America, Baltimore, 

1829; Josiah Priest, American Antiquities, Albany, 1834. See further, Hornius, cited p. 386.

See especially Agassiz' Essay in Nott and Gliddon's Types of Mankind. 

Hellwald, The American Migration, in Smiths. Ann. Rep., 1866, p. 328. 

Morgan, North American Review, No. cix, p. 407; Ancient Society, pp. 108-110. 

Rudolf Falb is reported to have announced * the discovery that the relation of the Quichua and Aymara languages to 

the Aryan and Semitic tongues is such as to justify the opinion that the primitive seat of the human species was either 

in Peru or Bolivia. Of those who hold to the population of America by immigration, some maintain that the American 

Indians are descendants of Jews; f some, that they are the posterity of the "lost tribes" of Israel.^: The extraordinary 

opinion has been advanced by Dr. Dominick M'Causland, that the Hyksos or "shepherds" driven from Egypt found 

their way to America.§ A more popular, because more plausible, opinion traces the entire population of America across 

Behring's Straits. It was a suggestion of E. G. Squier that it had arrived from Polynesia; while Dr. Daniel Wilson has 

recog- * In the Neue Freie Prase, of Vienna. I have not seen the original paper. 

hom. Thorowgood, Jews in America, or probabilities that the Americans are of that race, London, 1650. 

Hon. Elias Boudinot, A Star in, the West,— an ingenious and persuasive discussion, the result of immense study. 

"The Hyksos made frequent efforts to recover their lost dominion; but failing in their attempts, there is cogent and 

persuasive evidence that they passed eastward to the Euphrates valley, through India and Cochin China to the western 

shores of the American continent, and became the builders of those stupendous structures in that country whose origin 

is wrapped in mystery, but on which we can identify the Mesopotamian style of architecture, and trace popular habits 

and customs similar to those depicted on the Egyptian monuments." (M'Causland, Adam and the Adamite, pp. 226-7). 

The subject is more fully discussed in the same author's work, TIte Builders of Babel, pp. 84-101. The whole 

hypothesis seems to be destitute of any valid support. The supposed movement across Asia is nearly transverse to the 

natural pathways, and to the courses pursued by other ethnic movements; and the facts to which appeal is made are 

clearly traceable to other explanations. Besides, the pyramids and other "monuments" of Egypt were not produced by 

the Hyksos. 

nized the probability that one portion arrived from Polynesia and another from the northwest.* 

The origin of the Mexican and Peruvian civilizations has been the subject of endless speculations. It has been a 

favorite conjecture that the highly maritime Phoenicians carried their enterprises to the Xew World.f Alexander von 

Humboldt many times recorded his conviction that there had been an ancient intercourse between western America and 

eastern Asia.^: 

* " From some one of the early centers of South American population, planted on the Pacific coast by Polynesian and 

other migrations, the predominant southern race diffused itself" northward beyond the Isthmus, expanded throughout 

the peninsula of Central America, and ultimately spread over a large part of North America. "But independent of all 

real or hypothetical ramifications from southern or insular offsets of oceanic migration, some analogies confirm the 

probability of a portion of the North American stock having entered the continent from Asia by Behring's Straits, or 

Aleutian islands, and more probably by the latter than the former, for it is the climate that constitutes the real barrier." 

(Daniel Wilson, Prehistoric Man, pp. 595, 597).

Georgius Hornius, De originibus Americanis Libri Qnatuor, Hagae, 1652, see pp. 19, 20, 92, 94, where Horn affirms 

three grand Phoenician emigrations to America. M. Paul Gaffarel, who has recently made a resume' of the evidences 

on this subject, concludes thus: "Without affirming anything, as yet, we admit, then, that the Phoenicians discovered a 

vast island beyond the pillars of Hercules, many days' sail from the continent; that they made numerous voyages, and 

that they jealously preserved exclusive possession, with a view to removing thence in case of necessity, themselves 

and their families, as the Dutch at one time contemplated removing to Batavia, when the armies of Louis XIV were 

menacing Amsterdam. (Gaffarel, Les Pheniciens en Amerique; read before the Congres International des 

Aine'ricanistes, at Nancy, 1875. On this subject see also Landa, Relation des choses du Yucatan, trans. Brasseur de 

Bourbourg; Ordonez, Historia de la creacion del cielo y de la tierra; Cabrera, Description of the ruins of an ancient 

city, discovered near Palenque.) 

X Humboldt, Ueber Steppen und Wiisten; Vues des Cordilleres, et monumens des peuples indigenes de VAmerique, 

Paris, 1816, Vol. II; Ansichten der Natur, Stuttgart, 1859, I, 151, Am. ed., p. 144-7; Cosmos, Ott6's trans., Am. ed., II, 

236, note. 

Some of the northern antiquarians have advanced the opinion that the Norsemen planted first in North America the 

seeds of European civilization, and some have maintained that, even at an earlier date, the Irish Kelts had settled in 

America.* Catlin thought he detected evidences among the Tuscaroras of a mixed Welsh descent. f Indications of 

Oriental connections have quite recently been based on the remains of ceramic art found in the countries of the Pacific 

coast. This has been remarked in reference to the pottery of the Pueblos,^: as well as that of the Santa Barbara Indians 

of California. § I can personally testify that a study of ancient Peruvian pottery has constantly reminded me of forms 

with which we are familiar in Egyptian archaeology. Finally, a French traveler, Charnay, who has explored the east 

and west portions of Java, claims to have discovered a close affinity between the remains of the civilization introduced 

by Hindu Buddhists, and that of ancient Mexico. I The weight of opinion, after all, tends to 

* Humboldt, Relation Historique, torn. III, 1825, 9th Book; Hakluyt, Voyages and Navigations, Vol. III, p. 4. 

t Catlin, Letters and Notes on the manners, customs and conditions of the North American Indians, 1841, Vol. I, p. 

207; II, pp. 259 and 262-5; Humboldt, Cosmos, II, 236. 

X Barber, "A comparison of the Pueblo pottery, with Egyptian and Grecian Ceramics," in American Antiquarian, Vol. 

I, No.2, p. 61, July, 1878. 

§ I take the liberty to cite from a private letter, of December 30, 1878, received from Dr. Stephen Bowers, of Santa 

Barbara, who states that he is preparing a memoir on the "Santa Barbara stock of Indians." He continues: "I have found 

specimens identical with all the stone implements figured by Dr. Schliemann, in his Myccenai, etc., over which he 

expresses surprise; and General Cesnola informs me that the specimens I have found in the graves in this portion of 

California remind him of some obtained in the tombs of Cyprus." 

I Popular Science Monthly, July, 1879, p. 432. 

regard the American civilizations as indigenous, and this view seems most consonant with the general tenor of the 

evidences. Common characteristics of remote and independent civilizations must be expected to germinate from the 

common nature of man. 

The ethnological data by which we may be legitimately guided in searching for a knowledge of the ethnic movements 

of American populations are, briefly, the following: In the first place, we have the widely extended Eskimo and Aleut

groups of tribes, united by Dall in the great Orarian family, fringing the shores of the Arctic Ocean and Baffin's Bay. 

We have a series of physically and socially related tribes extending along the Pacific slope of the continent to the Gulf 

of California, and, as I fully believe, as far as central America and Peru, and even to Patagonia. These affiliations have 

been set forth in a preceding chapter. These consanguineous peoples must all have proceeded from one ethnographical 

origin. It is not from the south, for we find there an abrupt ethnic discontinuity. On the north, however, we note an 

absolute continuity with the northeastern Asiatics. 

While these coastwise tribes present a degree of homogeneity so marked, we observe everywhere, but especially in 

North America, a physical, moral and intellectual differentiation from another type of natives, the Hunting Indians, 

whom I have designated Vagantes. 

In the next place, we are in possession of some pretty definite knowledge concerning the actual movements of the 

American peoples. These movements, as in other countries, have been generally in the direction of the longitudinal 

dimension of the continent. It is the opinion of Dr. Rink that the Eskimo once lived in the interior of North America, 

and that they have been pressed northward and northwestward, and even across Behring's Straits by the hardier and 

more powerful hunting tribes.* It is a matter of record that the Eskimo have occupied regions much farther south than 

at present. The Kopag-mut, now confined to the border of the Frozen Ocean, formerly extended two hundred miles up 

the M'Kenzie river, but have been driven out by the Indians, f At the beginning of the last century, according to 

Charlevoix, Eskimo were occasionally seen in Newfoundland. About 1000 A.d. they lived somewhat farther south on 

the Atlantic coast. According to the Icelandic sagas, Lief and Bjom founded a colony in a region now Rhode Island, 

where they encountered some dwarfish natives whom they called skraelings.:): Certainly the stately Algonquins, whom 

the first white settlers met in New England, could not be described by Icelanders as dwarfish; and we have in the facts 

ground for the belief that much of North America was once occupied by the Eskimo race, and that they have been 

driven out by the warlike Hunting Indians. The opinion of Dr. Rink is accepted and extended by Professor Dall, who 

has spent several years in Alaska. § '' My own impression,'' he says, "agrees with that of Dr. Rink, that the Innuit were 

once inhabitants of the interior of America; that they 

* Cited by Dall from Arctic Papers, published in 1875 by the Geographical Society of London, and also from l\iles of 

the Eskimo, by Dr. Rink. 

Dall, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. I, p. 10. 

Torfaeus, Vinlandia Antiqua, Hafn, 1705; Antiquitates American® Copenhagen, 1837; Humboldt, Cosmos, Vol. II, p. 

233, Sabine's trans., 1848. 

Dall, in Powell's Contributions, I, p. 102. Mr. C. Markham's address on the Origin and Migrations of tlie Greenland 

Eskimo I have not seen. It was delivered before the Geographical Society of London, Feb. 27,1865. 

were forced to the west and north by the pressure of tribes of Indians from the south; that they spread into the Aleutian 

region and northwest coast generally, and possibly simultaneously to the north; . . . that they finally peopled Greenland 

and the shores of northeastern Siberia." Their first appearance in Greenland, after the middle of the fourteenth 

century,* is a fact and date in accordance with this general movement from the interior of America. Furthermore, 

many of the tribes of Washington and Oregon have been in motion westward. Dr. George Gibbs conjectures that "the 

Tahkali and Selish families, with perhaps the Shoshoni and some others, originated east of the Rocky Mountains; that 

the country between that chain and the Great Lakes has been a center from which population has diverged, "f The first 

two families above mentioned belong to the westcoast stock, and it is thought by Buschmann, that the Shoshoni are 

their near kindred. Nearer the coast the movements of migration have, in some instances, been southward. The Tsinuks 

have traditions of a northern origin. Dr. Gibbs names several tribes which are known to have moved southward. The

Shoshoni themselves have been driven in that direction, as well as westward. 

The Mexican nations had traditions of southward movements which are still more articulate. They are represented as 

proceeding from a distant country toward the northeast, named Aztlan. This may have been no more remote than 

Texas and New Mexico. By some 

* Conrad Maurer, in Der Zweiten Deutschen Nordpolarfahr, I, 234, Leipzig, 1873; David Cranz, Historie von 

Gronland, Vol. I, p. 333. 

t Dr. Geo. Gibbs, in Powell's Contributions, Vol. I, p. 224. This is similar to the opinion of Hellwald, but Mr. Morgan 

has expressed the conviction that migration was away from the Pacific coast. 

it is thought to have been located in the middle valley of the Mississippi and the lower Ohio, while others suppose it to 

have lain in the vast prairie region,* or even as far north as the basin of the Great Lakes. f Before the arrival in 

Anahuac of the founders of the Aztecan state, several other migrations had taken place from the same region and the 

same stock of people. These seem to have been slow and quiet movements, strongly contrasting with those brief and 

turbulent tribes of warlike hordes in Asia and Europe which brought subjugation and destruction successively over 

China, India, Tartary and Rome. It was more like those Asiatic movements located in the very twilight of tradition, in 

which we see the Chinese, and the forefathers of the Tunguses and Turks, slowly extending themselves northeastward 

across the great Tarym basin toward the Japanese Sea,— a progress more like the movement of a glacier or the growth 

of a tree than the migration of a people. These were movements, perhaps, like that of population from our own 

Atlantic coast toward the Mississippi valley, but characterized by a lower degree of vigor and a slower rate. 

First, if we may follow the faintest evidences, were the movements of the great Xahoa family, \ which introduced into 

Mexico, before the Christian Era, the socalled Toltecatl civilization. They displaced the tribes already in possession 

who, though somewhat distinct in dialects, bore a fundamental resemblance to the Toltecatl stock. Among these older 

tribes were the 01mecs, the Otomi, remarkable for their monosyllabic (or 

* Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres, in many places. 

t Von Hellwald, Smithsonian Ann. Rep. 1866, 355. 

X Abbfi Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations cinilisees du Mexique et de VAmerique Centrale, Paris, 1857-59, 

Vol. I. The volume is abundant in information respecting the Nahoas. 

Asiatic ?) speech, the Totonacs, the Mixtecs, the Tarascs and the Zapotecs. Two general routes seem to have been 

pursued by the Nahuatl emigrants. One was on the east of the Rocky Mountain ranges, along the valley of the 

Mississippi to the Gulf, and thence over the lowland border through Tamaulipas and San Leon, toward the Mexican 

table-land. The other route lay on the west of the Rock Mountains, and pursued a broad path over the great plateau 

regions through Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona to the Rio Gila, and thence through Chihuahua, Durango and 

Zacatecas, to the lake of Chapala. A third seems to have lain nearer the Pacific coast, from Sinaloa to Nicaragua. 

Early in the seventh century the Toltecs* arrived from the same general direction. They moved, apparently, over the 

three converging routes just indicated; but there is no evidence that the movements were simultaneous. The whole 

migration probably extended over some centuries. The monarchy which they established fell to pieces about 1018, and 

a remnant of the Toltec people sought a refuge in Guatemala and Nicaragua. The Chichimecs, who, from time

immemorial, had hung on their northern borders, now assumed occupation on the site of the vanished Toltecan state. 

The Chichimecs were a fierce and warlike people, and spoke a language foreign to the Nahoa stock. I venture the 

conjecture that they, and some other alien tribes of Mexico, belonged to a divarication of the stock of Hunting Indians. 

Soon began the invasion of the group of tribes known as Nahuatlacs. The seventh and last of these was the celebrated 

Aztecs, who arrived after a considerable interval. From the Aztec annals we learn that 

*Orozco y Berra, Oeografia de las Lenguas y Carta ethnografica de Mexico, Mexico, 1865. 

they issued from Aztlan in 1090. In 1091 they were at Quahuitl-Icacan. Thence, by successive stages, during a series 

of years, like those by which we trace the Asiatic Aryans from their northern home, we are able to mark the progress 

of the Aztecs from the mysterious Aztlan to the paradise of Anahuac on the tableland of Mexico, a hundred years after 

their departure from their northern abode. The Israelites wandered forty years in the wilderness before reaching the 

promised land; the Aztecs, a century. Here the Aztecs reared that civilization which excited the wonder and the 

cupidity of the Spaniards. 

The Aztecs had succeeded the Chichimecs, who seemed to have retired to the country from which they came, on the 

northwestern border of Anahuac. The Chichimecs had succeeded the Toltecs who, on their part, had continued 

southward into Guatemala and Nicaragua. The Toltecs had succeeded the Nahoas, who had also moved southward into 

the same countries. In Guatemala, Nicaragua and Yucatan are the architectural remains of a remarkable civilization, 

not surpassed by that of the Aztecs.* It remains a disputed question whether these amazing monuments are the 

comparatively late work of the Toltecs or of their probable predecessors, the Nahoas, or are rather to be attributed to a 

people who dwelt in these countries at a still remoter period. The latter conclusion seems to be the best sustained. But 

in any event, the general character of these central Ameri- * E. G. Squier, Niacaragua, its People, Scenery, 

Monuments, New York, 1852, 2 vols.; Notes on Central America, 1855; "Archaeology and Ethnography of Nicaragua," 

Trans. Am. Ethnograph. Soc, Vol. III, 1852; Francourt, History of Yucatan, from its discovery to the .dose of the nth 

century, London; J. L. Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan, New York, 1840, 2 

vols., 12th ed., 1853. 

can remains is such that few will deny an ethnic connection more or less remote between the people of the Palencan 

civilization and those of the table-land of Mexico. This implies southward migrations as far as Yucatan and 

Guatemala. 

Still greater is our uncertainty respecting the ethnic connections of the ancient inhabitants of Costa Rica, Chiriqui and 

Panama. In Chiriqui we begin to discover traits of relationship with Peru; * but as Hellwald observes, "a doubt can 

scarcely exist" that the countries of the Isthmus were reached by the migrations from Anahuac. We detect faint 

indications of actual communication between North and South America. Proceeding to the highlands of New Grenada, 

we find the home of the ancient and modern Chibcha, or Muysca, stretching as far as Cundinamarca and Bogota.f 

These people possess some myths which clearly remind us of the Toltecs. Farther south, in the highlands of Quito, are 

faint traces of an early actual migration. Here the Cara people, who established the monarchy of Quitu, are reported to 

have come "from over the sea." The epoch of the monarchy is said to fall between 700 and 800 A.d., and continued till 

1487, when it was conquered by the Incas and annexed to Pern. 

Distinct evidences of migrations reappear in Peru. On the rise of the Inca dominion, the Aymaras had been in 

possession from a mythical antiquity. Many of the monuments of Peru pertain to this older people. The sepulchral 

mounds are theirs; the gorgeous

* King Merritt, "Report on the huacas or ancient graveyards of Chiriqui," Proc. Elh. Soc, New York, 1860. 

t Joaquin Acosta, Oompendio historico del discubrimiento y colonizacion de la Nueva Grenada, Paris, 1848; Ezequiel 

Urioeoechea, Monumenta Chibcharum. 

temple of Pachacamac, the Creator of the earth, was theirs; the extensive structures near Tiahuanuco, on lake Titicaca, 

were theirs, and perhaps also the ruins of the ancient Caxamarquilla. . These people retreated before the Incas, toward 

the southwest and south. In the fifteenth century they were driven as far as Chile.* The Incas themselves had very 

probably a northern origin. Their civilization presents so many points of resemblance with that of the Toltecs, that we 

are constrained to regard them as near relatives, if indeed they were not the Toltecs themselves, reappearing in due 

time, after the decay of their empire in Mexico. This is the conclusion of that sagacious observer and almost inspired 

generalizer, Alexander von Humboldt, and this view is entertained by Von Hellwald, and, as I judge, by ethnologists 

generally. 

Through Chile and Patagonia we discover no marks of actual migration. The only indications of connection with Peru 

and more northern countries are the physical correspondences of race, and some burial customs, before referred to. 

Neither do we discover in the regions east of the Andes the proofs of ethnic or tribal movements, which clearly tend to 

connect the inhabitants of these countries with the race-family or the civilization which spread over the highlands and 

plains of the west. There are faint indications, however, that some feeble rays of Peruvian civilization reached southern 

Brazil, and that the populations of some parts of eastern South America are descended from two ethnic stocks, while 

the tribes of the Amazonas valley represent exclusively the older and more uncultured people. 

It results from the evidences in our possession 

* Prescott. History of the Conquest of Peru, New York, 1847; Desjardines, Le Perou avant la conquete espagnole, 

Paris, 1858. 

that there has existed a continuous and general tendency of migration from north to south in the two Americas. South 

of the isthmus the movement is restricted to the Andean and sub-Andean belt along the Pacific; north of the Isthmus it 

occupied the whole breadth of the continent as far as the latitude of New Orleans; and beyond that it is traceable as far 

as the Great Lakes, from the valley of the Ohio to California. Still further north, the intracontinental movements, if 

they ever existed, are overlaid and obscured by the wanderings of the Hunting Indians, who have long held possession. 

Yet west of the Cascade ranges we still discern faint reminiscences of tribal movements conformable to the general 

tendency of this stock of the American population. The Eskimo, however, as already stated, have for centuries been in 

progress of retreat northward, probably from the latitude of Rhode Island. There must consequently have been an 

earlier time when they moved southward from the gate of entrance upon the territory of America. 

So far as we have learned anything of the social relation of the two families of North American natives, it has been 

one of hostility, in which the Hunting Indians have continually encroached upon the more peaceful occidental tribes. In 

many cases we are informed that the movements of the latter have been caused by the encroachments of the former. 

The Tinneh have at a few points penetrated quite to the Pacific coast. The facts of observation show a population of 

wild savages pressing continually northward and westward. Projecting these movements backward a few centuries, we 

can readily descry the fierce warriors of the Tinneh, the Iroquois and the Algonkins invading the continent from the 

southeast. The only passage in that direction to regions more remote is by Florida and the arch of the lesser Antilles. 

Florida is easily accessible from these islands. At the same time the Caribs actually spread from the West Indies to the 

coast of South America. There are no facts in our possession forbidding the hypothesis of a current of slow migration 

from the western or southwestern shore of South America toward the mouths of the Amazons and the Orinoco; and 

this is a hypothesis which it seems to me best explains the body of facts which I have passed in review. The ethnic

affinities of these northward-moving tribes with the populations of Oceanica and of the southward-moving tribes with 

people of northeastern Asia I have already traced; and it only remains now to consider the physical practicability of 

communication with America over the two routes indicated, the one by Behring's Straits and the other by Polynesia. 

The fundamental identity of race between the natives of America and the Mongoloids of the Old World points toward 

an Asiatic origin of American populations. Prof. W. H. Dall, who regards the Innuit or Eskimo stock as of American 

origin, with more of a tendency to migration toward Asia than in the opposite direction, nevertheless admits: "It maybe 

as well to premise that in the far and distant past, a period so ancient as to be wholly without the scope of this paper, it 

seems probable that the first population of America was derived from the west. ... I see no reason for disputing the 

hypothesis that America was peopled from Asia originally, and that there were successive waves of emigration."* 

If we admit it as highly probable that the New 

* W. II. Dall, in Powell's Contributions to American Ethnology, Vol. I, p. 95. 

World was populated by Mongoloids from the Old, the next question is in reference to the point or points of 

communication between the two. Now, save the prehistoric Mongoloids, who once occupied Europe, and the torpid 

Finnish tribes of the present day, we are not certain of the existence of Mongoloids in the Old World anywhere except 

along the shores and islands of the Pacific ocean. It is scarcely supposable that the prehistoric Mongoloids of Europe 

found their way to America across the Atlantic ocean — unless geographical conditions were very different from the 

present,— a point to which I have already adverted. On the other hand, it is certain that from the time when the eastern 

shores of Asia received their populations, easy access to America has existed. The former presence of the Hairy 

Mammoth on both sides of Behring's Straits is a strong indication that a landconnection formerly existed. But without 

the aid of this hypothesis, intercommunication by the straits is not extraordinarily difficult. The headlands of America 

are visible from the Asiatic side. The straits are frozen over and passable every winter. The animal species on opposite 

sides are identical. In summer, Eskimo boatmen very frequently make the passage from one side to the other, for 

commercial purposes. Indeed, there is a tribe of Eskimo, the Okee-og-mut, occupying the islands in the straits, who 

subsist as commercial traders, and regularly conduct the traffic between the Asiatic and American shores. From St. 

Lawrence island, south of the straits, they exchange commodities with Plover Bay, on the west, and St. Michael's and 

Kotzebue Sound, on the east. From this island, the nearest land on the Asiatic side is 50 statute miles distant; on the 

American side it is 120 statute miles. The width of the straits is commonly stated at 36 to 39 geographical miles, which 

is equivalent to about 45 statute miles. It is certain, therefore, that this is one thoroughfare, over which Asia has 

transmitted populations to America. 

There is another northern connection possible, and that is from Kamtchatka, the Kurile islands or Japan, by the 

Aleutian islands, to America. From Attu, the westernmost of the Aleutians, to the nearest cape of Kamtchatka, is said 

to be 491 statute miles. The Commander's islands, however, break this interval. Miedna island is but 130 miles from 

Kamtchatka, and Behring's but 235 statute miles from Attu. These distances, over a boisterous sea, are regarded by 

Professor Dall as impracticable to the rude navigators of primitive times; and he denies, with emphasis, the plausibility 

of the theory of emigration by the Aleutian route.* But I cannot reject it with equal assurance. It appears that such 

ocean spaces have been crossed. They have been crossed in high northern latitudes, and they have been crossed by 

voyagers who have founded populations. There are the Pribiloff islands, which, Professor Dall informs us, are 

inhabited by Aleuts. Now, as Aleuts occupy also the islands named after them, population must have passed in one 

direction or the other. But the Pribiloff islands are 220 statute miles from the nearest Aleutians. They are an equal 

distance from the Eskimo island of Nunivak. They lie in the midst of Behring's sea, "which is almost perpetually 

covered by fog." Such facts lessen the improbability of migration from Kamtchatka to the Aleutians. But if the channel 

of 491 miles is passable, it is easy to admit that seafarers from the Kurile islands, or even from the shores of Japan, 

may have planted colonies upon the Aleutians;

* Dall, in Powell's Contributions, I, 95, 96. 

since the Kuro Siwo, which flows northward on the Asiatic side, would, of itself, carry adventurers from the Kurile or 

Japanese waters, both northward and eastward, and render access from the more southern regions as practicable as 

from Kamtchatka. The fact that neither branch of this current actually strikes the Aleutians is not a conclusive 

negative, since both the northward and the eastward branches pass within a practicable distance of the most western 

Aleutians. We should bear in mind, also, the length of voyages made by the Polynesian islanders. Indeed, most 

articulate traditions exist, as already stated, of the successive occupation of these island groups by adventurers 

originally from the Malay archipelago. These movements were opposed by the great ocean currents and the prevailing 

monsoons, and at each step covered several hundred miles. To Easter island from Pitcairn is about 700 statute miles; 

from the Friendly to the Society islands, at least 1100 miles; from Tahiti to the Marquesas, 600; from the Tonga 

islands to New Zealand, 1300, and from the Marquesas to the Sandwich islands, 1600 miles. I think it proper, 

therefore, to keep in view the possibility that Mongoloids may have passed from Asia to America by way of the 

Aleutian islands.* 

There are excellent reasons, I believe, for considering the practicability of a Polynesian connection. From Easter island 

the distance to the Galapagos is 2000 miles, which is only 400 miles, or one quarter, more than the Kanaks are known 

to have traveled, and still travel, upon voyages of commerce or adventure. From the Galapagos to America the 

distance 

* For several instructive examples of the passage of hundreds of miles in the open sea in small boats, see Lyell, 

Principles of Geology,, 8th ed., pp. 638-40. 

is not over 600 miles. But there are good grounds to infer that in the primitive periods of humanity the pathway across 

the South Pacific was less interrupted. Caspari has given us a chart of the "conjectural conformation of the land during 

early post-tertiary time,* in which a great expanse of land stretches from the Marquesas islands nearly to the coast of 

South America. In the North Pacific, also, are located tracts of land which would render the passage from Asia to 

Mexico exceedingly practicable. The chain of islands marking the location of this connection is very conspicuous (see 

Chart). He even intimates that this is the course pursued by the ancestors of the Nahuatl nations. I am not aware that 

the evidences of soundings suggest, independently, any such daring attempts at the restoration of lost lands, but it has 

been long known that the existing flora of South America, Fuegia and the Falkland islands points to Polynesian and 

remoter connections. Dr. J. D. Hooker has discussed this subject on the basis of a wide induction. In his "Flora of New 

Zealand," especiallyf after citing the phenomena of geographical distribution, and showing the high improbability — 

in the case of some species the impossibility— of a transmission by ocean currents, winds or other supposable 

agencies, he concludes that "it is necessary to assume that there was, at one time, a land communication [with New 

Zealand] by which the Chilian plants were interchanged; that at the same, or another epoch, the Australian; at a third, 

the Antarctic, and at a fourth, the Pacific floras, were added to the assemblage. It is not necessary to suppose that for 

this interchange there was a 

* Otto Caspari, Die Urgescliichte der Menschheit, etc., Leipzig, 1873, Vol. I, Chart, and pp. 191, etc. 

t See also his Flora Antarctica, pp. 210 and 368. continuous connection between any two of these localities, for an 

intermediate land, peopled with some or all of the plants common to both, may have existed between New Zealand and 

Chili, when neither of these countries was yet above the water." His final conclusion, in reference to New Zealand 

(including Auckland and Campbell's islands), Australia (including Tasmania) and extra-tropical South America 

(including the Falkland islands), is, "that the floras of these regions exhibit a botanical relationship as strong as that 

which prevails throughout the lands within the Arctic north temperate zones, and which is not to be accounted for by 

any theory of transport or variation; but which is agreeable to the hypothesis of all being members of a once more 

extensive flora, which has been broken up by geological and climatic causes." As specimens of the facts on which this

generalization is based, I may here state that 89 New Zealand species of phenogamous plants, or nearly oneeighth of 

the whole, are South American, and 50 species, or nearly one-sixteenth of the whole, occur also in Fuegia and the 

Antarctic islands.* 

Beccari, whom I have before quoted as a recent authority on the meaning of kindred organic forms surviving on widely 

separated land areas, employs the distribution of palms to prove the obliteration of connecting land between South 

Africa and South America. We have, he says, one species of liaphia 

* Hooker, Flora of New Zealand, Vol. I; Introductory Essay, in Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. Discoveryships 

Erebus and Terror, 1839-43. This essay is copiously reviewed in American Journal Science and Arts [2], Vol. 

XVII, pp. 241 and 334, March and May, 1854. The general subject is resumed by Dr. Hooker, in Flora of Tasmania; 

Introductory Essay, " On the Origination and Distribution of Species," cited very fully in American Journal Science 

and Arts [2] xxix, pp. 1 and 305, January and May, 1860. 

along the Amazons, five on the west coast of Africa, and a seventh on Madagascar. As the fruits of these palms 

possess no ready means for distribution, it is necessary to assume that the physical relations of these regions were once 

very different from the present.* 

Such generalizations based on organic phenomena are fully sanctioned by the general tenor of geological history. The 

appearance and disappearance of landareas have served to punctuate the progress of terrestrial events.f But the past 

conditions of the Polynesian region are elucidated by facts of a somewhat special character. Charles Darwin and 

Professor James D. Dana almost simultaneously brought to light the evidences of extensive and long-continued 

vertical oscillations among the coral islands of the South Pacific.^: On this subject, the following language is employed 

by Mr. Andrew Murray: "It is now universally admitted that these coral islets are the relics of a submerged land which 

had formerly existed as a great continent; and the relations of the faunas and floras of South America to New Zealand 

and Australia on the one hand, and to Africa on the other, as well as some relations between southwest Australia and 

south Africa, almost compel us to 

* O. Beccari, Malesia. See also Kosmos, III Jahrg. 1879, Apr., p. 55. For earlier suggestions on this subject see 

Schouw, Grundz&ge einer allgemeinen Pflanzengeographie, Berlin, 1823; De Candolle, Geographie Botanique, Paris 

and Geneva, 1855. 

t If, according to Professor Croll's speculations, the southern hemisphere is at present in a state of secular glaciation, 

its lands are abnormally depressed; while, on the contrary, during glaciation of the northern hemisphere, the land of the 

southern hemisphere must have been abnormally elevated in respect to the sea-level. See Croll, Climate and Time. 

X Darwin, Journal of a Naturalist; Dana, Geology of Wilkes' Exploring Expedition and Corals and Coral Islands. 

admit that as complete a circlet of land formerly crowned the southern temperate regions as now does the northern." * 

It only remains to establish the persistence of this continental connection into human times, to discover the requisite 

facilities for racial intercommunication between Polynesia and South America. This is thought probable by so good an 

authority as Prof. Daniel Wilson, already cited on this subject. 

The theory of immigration to America and of ethnic movements on American soil flows necessarily from the facts and 

considerations thus presented. The great northeastward current of population setting from the neighborhood of the 

primitive seat of the Chinese people toward the valleys of the Amur and Lena, while giving off successively the 

branches which have become Mantchu, Turkish, Altaic and Mongol stems, prolonged itself with diminished force into

the farther peninsula of Asia. Either by means of a land connection or across the strait, and probably, also, by the 

Aleutians, these hyperborean tribes found their way to America. Eastward they streamed over the greater part of North 

America as far, probably, as the Carolinas, and at a later period in another direction to Greenland. The stream of 

populations was split by the Alaskan mountains into two currents. The coastwise current I do not feel disposed to trace 

farther south than the peninsula of California. The inland current, in addition to the Eskimo dispersion just mentioned, 

flowed in a powerful stream southward along the lake-bearing zone of the continent from the valley of M'Kenzie's 

river to Lake Superior. The traces of copper-mining industry remaining in that region attest their occupancy. This was 

on the borders of the 

♦Andrew Murray, The Geographical Distribution of Mammals, London, 1866, 4to, p. 25. 

mysterious Aztlan. Within the country of Aztlan these people spread themselves over the region characterized by the 

presence of mounds and earthworks throughout the northwest. Meantime successive migrations, or rather 

developments of population, extended this people southwestward over the plateaux of Colorado, Arizona and New 

Mexico. Now were built the celebrated cliff-houses so interestingly described by Holmes, Jackson and others; now 

were reared "the seven cities of Cibola."* The remarkable Pueblos of the southwest are the relics of the ancient 

population. 

Wave following wave swept onward. The beginning of this flow is lost in the obscurity of the past. The Nahoas moved 

forward in due succession. The Toltecs followed and crowded the Nahoas through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec into 

Yucatan and central America. The Aztecs followed the Toltecs in occupancy. While the Aztecs crowded on the 

Toltecs, these pushed farther the Nahoas, and the Nahoas pressed on the rear of their unknown and mysterious 

predecessors. The front of the stream spread at length over the highlands of Cundinamarca. The Aymaras pioneered to 

the borders of Titicaca. The Incas sprang up in their rear, and while they absorbed the kingdom of Quitu on one hand 

they dispelled the fugitive Aymaras on the other to the borders of Chile. 

Meantime another type of Mongoloids had strayed to the shores of South America by the Polynesian communication. 

Few at first, they were unable to force a passage northward along the western slopes of the Andes, already occupied. 

They filed through the passes of the mountains into the plains of the Gran 

* See an interesting critical account of the "Seven Cities of Cibola," by L. H. Morgan, in North American Review, No. 

CVIII, April 1869, pp. 457-498, with numerous literary references. 

Chaco and the pampas of the La Plata. The lowlands and borders of broad rivers suited the hereditary instincts of the 

posterity of islanders. In due time all South America eastward of the Andes fell into their possession. The vast tide of 

the Amazonas and its annual sea-like overflow nourished a truly maritime population. When they stood on the shores 

of the Caribbean they dared embark upon its waves. Island invited them from island. They reached the Greater 

Antilles. They rested on the Tortugas. They invaded the peninsula of Florida, and another continent was open before 

them. Spreading northward and westward, they pressed the older occupants from their presence. The white man arrived 

and found these movements of population in progress, and the only changes which have taken place during the last 

four centuries have been entirely in conformity with the tenor of events which I have thus delineated.

Chapter 25 

Dispersion of the Dravidians and Mediterraneans 

We turn now to the method of dispersion of the second of the Brown races, known in recent times as Dravidians or 

Dravida. Sustaining pronounced affinities with both Mongoloids and Australians, as shown in chapter xix, they must 

be regarded as a branch divaricating from the Australian trunk while yet Lemuria existed. Its course in relation to that 

of the premongoloids is largely a matter of conjecture. Its historical status, however, shows that it sought the regions 

lying toward the north. It participated in the movement of the consanguineous Mongoloids. On such a presumption I 

depict it as tending rather toward the mouths of the Indus than toward Ceylon and the Dekhan. On one hand it became 

dispersed over much of the region between the Indus and the Caspian, and on the other it passed into the Indian 

Punjab. From the Punjab it appears that one branch followed the valley of the Ganges to its delta, and another moved 

southward. In due time the whole of Hindustan was overrun by this race, and we have no evidence of any earlier 

occupation. It reached Ceylon, and in comparatively modern times developed there a voluminous literature. It is more 

than probable that the Ceylonic legend of Adima and Heva originated with this race. The later invading Brahmans 

could not have located the Eden of mankind in a country of which they knew nothing. 

On the theory of the postmongoloid origin of the Adamites, it is time to look for the ancestral stock of Adam. The 

Preadamite peoples who seem to have been in the vicinity of the Mesopotamian region about this time were the 

Dravidians, and, perhaps, the troglodytic Mongoloids. The Turkish nations, themselves strongly approximated, in their 

modern aspects, to the Mediterranean race, had certainly not reached these regions, and had not, probably, assumed 

their present ethnic aspects, in the age of the early Adamites. Otherwise, we might be tempted to suppose that Adam 

had sprung from the Osmanli, or Uzbek or Turcoman stock. With our present view of the facts, it seems more 

reasonable, as before shown, to regard the early Adamites as a specialized ramification of the northern Dravidians.* 

Adam, of the Hebrews, was probably the ancestor to whom, with more or less of myth, they traced their national 

genealogy. This is all that Adam, as a proper name, signifies. I have little doubt that Adam had fellow-countrymen, in 

small number, who closely resembled himself; but their posterity were destroyed by the great deluge which visited that 

region, or they remain undistinguishable from modern Dravidians. The deluge of Hebrew tradition was not separated 

from the advent of Adam by an interval sufficiently long to permit antediluvian Adamites to become very widely 

dispersed. The center of the Noachic dispersion, as on general grounds we may believe, was but a few hundred miles 

from the "Garden of Eden." Aside, therefore, from the probability that the non-Noachic Adamites were exterminated 

by the Flood, it seems useless to seek for traces of Adamites as distinct from the Noachites. For us, at this distance, the 

dispersion of the Noachites is the disper 

* See chapter xix. 

sion of the Adamites. This subject has already been discussed on both biblical and scientific grounds, in the third, 

fourth and fifth chapters of the present work; and nothing further remains to be said.* 

It may be appropriate, however, to note some divergent views respecting the unity of the ethnic assemblage commonly 

denominated Mediterranean. The scheme of human dispersions set forth in the present work implies the reality of a 

single original center of humanity; and a lineally connected center of dispersion for each of the principal types of 

mankind, so situated as to be embraced in the general scheme of dispersion, at the same time that it fulfills the 

requirements of all known facts connected with the history of the several races. Aside from the theory of multiple 

origin of mankind, it is not in the least surprising that some modern ethnologists have assumed positions totally 

incompatible with the scheme

* In the present discussion of the question of Preadamites, I have not been required to examine the correctness of the 

popular interpretation of Genesis which views the three so-called "sons" of Noah as somewhat contemporaneous. The 

inquiry must ultimately be made, nevertheless, whether the Genesiacal brotherhood is one of common parents, or, 

rather, of common descent from the Noachite ancestor. The Bible indicates Ham as the oldest "brother," and Japheth as 

the youngest; and archaeology has shown (see chapter iii) that Hamitic empires preceded Semitic, as Semitic empires 

preceded Japhetic. It is possible that many centuries intervened respectively between Ham, Shem and Japheth. 

Connected with this inquiry is the closer physical approximation of Hamites to Dravidians and Mongoloids, manifest 

in their deeper color, their inferior hairiness, and less developed secondary sexual characters generally; in all which 

particulars the Japhetites are more differentiated, in accordance with their later emergence into view. The affinity of 

the Hamitic Accadian language, moreover, with the Mongolo-Dravidian, was such that by Rawlinson and others it was 

once ranked as Turanian ; while no Turanian affinities of Japhetic languages have ever arrested particular attention. 

here proposed, and with every scheme which attempts to trace types of men, and the human species at large, to their 

respective centers of dispersion. It has been maintained that movements of migration have passed from Europe into 

Asia, instead of the converse direction. The traditional belief in the Asiatic origin of the modern Europeans seems first 

to have been attacked by Adam Czarnotski, who wrote between 1813 and 1825.* He maintained that the Slavs were a 

primitive population of Europe. This opinion was reaffirmed by Laurenz Surovietski in 1822, and by Lelewel in 1830. 

About the same time it was assumed by H. Schulz that the cradle of the Indo-Germanic stock was in western Europe, 

and that a tide of emigration has extended thence into Asia.f Omalius d'Halloy strenuously asserted the European 

origin of the Aryan languages, and, by consequence, of the Aryan family.^: Latham, more recently, has argued for the 

European origin of Aryan languages and peoples, on the ground that the less numerous must have been derived from 

the more numerous,— a very inconclusive argument, certainly. Beufey thinks the Indo-Germanic family is a distinct 

race, developed not far from the Caspian Sea. Fligier fixes on southwest Germany for the primitive home of the 

Aryans.§ Theodor Poesche is confident that the primitive seat of this family was upon the 

* According to Casimir Delamarre, in Bulletin de la Societe de Oeogrciphie, June, 1870. 

t H. Schulz, Zvr Urgeschichte desDeutsclien Volksstamm.es,Ha.mm y 1826. 

I Omalius d'Halloy, "Lecture sur la prfitendue origine des Europe'ens," in Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie de 

Paris, torn, vi, pp. 237-246. 

§ Fligier, in MUtheilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen Oesellschaft, VI, 8, 9. 

plains of northern Europe, between the Baltic and the Black Sea.* In my own judgment, however, though some 

ground must exist for each of these divergent opinions, the weight of probability rests most decidedly with the theory 

of the central Asiatic origin of the Mediterranean race, and also of the Aryan family. The indications on which 

contrary opinions have been based, so far as I learn, are simply the reflex movements of tribes and nations repulsed 

from Europe by hostile neighbors. Such were the early movements of the Kelts from Iberia to Gaul and northern Italy, 

and afterward to Asia Minor; and the retreat of the Kalmucks, in 1771, from the valley of the Volga, in the direction of 

the ancient seat of the Mongol family. But in such cases we either have actual knowledge of earlier westward 

movements, or else good historic and ethnological data on which to base an inference to that effect. 

* Theodor Poesche, Die Arier, Ein Beitrag zur historischen Anthropologic pp. 64, 66. He finds "in the Dnieper the 

mighty nurse of the oldest Aryans," p. 72.

Chapter 26 

Condition of Primitive Man 

THE conception of man as an educable and improvable being implies a primitive man destitute of all the material and 

cultural results of intellectual and disciplinary activity. The conception of primitive man in the possession of all the 

natural endowments of the Mediterranean race of the present, is a denial of the capacity of man to improve, and an 

implication that all the effort and discipline and knowledge of thousands of years have failed to increase, to any extent, 

man's natural power of accomplishment. As long as it was supposed that the remote ancestors of the Hebrew family 

were the primitive population of the world there was good reason to maintain that primitive man was equal to the 

White man of the present. He was the White man. But, now that we feel confident of a long line of remoter and 

Preadamic ancestors, we discover that Nature's principle of ceaseless improvement has had scope of time and space 

sufficient for application in the human career; and we feel a sensible relief in knowing that we are not shut up to a 

cast-iron condition, but may hope for boundless improvement. 

To assert that man has advanced from the lowest human condition, is not to assert that this condition was reached by 

advance from the brute. It is not necessary to assert this; and I wish the reader to note distinctly that none of the 

conclusions of this work rest on the assumption of man's derivation from a brute ancestor. Man may or may not have 

had such an origin; I do not trouble myself or the reader with that question. But as all theories, "orthodox" and 

"heterodox," hold to a blood relationship among the races; and as plain facts, in spite of theories, show that a gradation 

exists among the races, and that the normal movement of organic succession is from lower to higher, I know of no 

method of avoiding the conclusion that the condition of primitive man (not Adam) is represented by the condition of 

the lowest race of modern times. I do not say the lowest and most stupid and driveling human condition existing; for 

individuals, and even whole tribes, have been crushed to the status of extreme stolidity and distress. I think the wild 

Australian of the interior is probably quite as good as the first representatives of humanity. 

The Troglodytes of Europe have been fallaciously represented as examples of primitive humanity. They belong to a 

race older than Adam; and perhaps reached Europe before the advent of Adam; and they represented, undoubtedly, a 

low condition of human intelligence, and more especially of culture. Yet they were quite superior to modern 

Australians; and we must believe them at least equally superior to their own remote progenitors. As they have 

sometimes been represented as half-brutes, connecting man with apes, it may be well to summarize here the inductive 

conclusions which display them as fully men. 

Physically, the men of the Palaeolithic* Epoch, judging from the few skulls and skeletons discovered in Belgium and 

England, were of rather short stature, and of a Mongoloid type, like modern Finns and Lapps. Anatomical comparisons 

confirm the conclusion of Grimm, based on linguistic researches. In 

*For explanation of this and correlated terms see p. 167. 

the Reindeer Epoch, the remains of southern Europe indicate men nearly six feet in stature; but the men of Belgium 

were still small and round-headed, and such they continued to be to the end of the Stone Age. The Neolithic men of 

the Swiss lakes were much like the modern Swiss; but this is not sufficient proof that they were the ancestors of the 

Swiss. 

The Palaeolithic men do not seem to have been characterized by any marked inferiority of type; yet a jaw-bone found 

at Naulette, has several marks of inferiority, being somewhat thick, and small in height, and having molar teeth 

increasing in size backward, the wisdom-teeth being largest instead of smallest, and having, moreover, five fangs

instead of two. The chin, also, is deficient in prominence. The famous Neanderthal skull, also, has a low forehead and 

prominent brow-ridges, but the cranial capacity was seventyfive cubic inches (12.29 cubic centimeters) — about that 

of the lowest living races, and "in no sense," as Huxley says, "to be regarded as the remains of a human being 

intermediate between man and the apes." The Engis skull exhibits no special marks of inferiority. The Cro-Magnon 

skull of the Reindeer Epoch had a capacity of 97 cubic inches (15.90 cubic centimeters), which is above the mean of 

the Mediterranean race. There was considerable prominence of the jaws, but the chin was projecting and presented a 

strong contrast with the Naulette jaw. The tibia was much flattened (platycnemic), as in many other primitive types, 

though it is worthy of inquiry whether this is not a general Mongoloid character. The Neolithic Borreby skull belonged 

to the type of Neanderthal. 

Socially and intellectually, palaeolithic man, in the regions in question, seems to have existed in a most primitive 

condition. Dwelling in wild caverns,* he hunted the beasts with the rudest stone implements, and clothed himself in 

their skins. We find no evidence of the use of fire, though probably known; and there are some indications that he 

made food of his own species. Few attempts at pottery have been discovered, and in these the product was rude, 

handmade, and simply sun-dried. In the Reindeer Epoch, fire was in general use, and it was employed in baking, 

though imperfectly, a better style of hand-made pottery, and in cooking food employed in funereal and, quite possibly, 

cannibalistic feasts. Many pieces of highly ornamented reindeer's horn, pierced with one, two or three holes, 

discovered in Perigord, are regarded as staves of authority, either civic or priestly. Here also occur numerous 

phalangeal bones of the deer, so pierced with a hole as to serve for whistles. Bone and reindeer's horn were wrought 

into barbed harpoons and arrow-heads. 

In the Neolithic Epoch, cereals were cultivated and ground into flour for cakes; cloth was formed for clothing, and 

bone combs for the hair; stores of fruit were preserved for winter's use; garden tools were fashioned from stag's horn; 

log canoes were employed in navigation; planks and timbers of oak were made by splitting tree-trunks with stone 

wedges; log cabins were constructed on piles, or on artificial islands; fortifications were employed in war; fish-nets, 

well made from flaxen cords, have been dredged at 

* It is a necessary supposition that man, in the primitive state, sought such shelter as Nature had provided beforehand. 

Peschel says: "In the legends of the Mexicans and the inhabitants of the Antilles, living beings are supposed to have 

first proceeded from caves; and caves play a similar part in the legends of creation current among the Tehueltecs." 

(Peschel, Races of Man, p. 408.) 

Robenhausen, and the abundant debris of numerous, flint workshops, implying a degree of division of labor, have been 

discovered at Grand-Pressigny and other places in Belgium and France. As to intelligence and mental dexterity, a 

surprising amount is developed in the working of flint implements, especially in the north of Europe. 

Aesthetically, palaeolithic man had advanced no farther than the use of necklaces formed of natural beads, consisting 

of fossil foraminifera from the chalk. Some flints from the river-drift of St. Acheul present rough sketches which, it 

has been conjectured, may have been prompted by the artistic feeling. Some of them bear remote resemblances to the 

human head, in profile, three-quarter view, and full face; also to animals, such as the rhinoceros and mammoth. If the 

cavern of Massat is palaeolithic, it affords us the most ancient known successful attempt at portraiture; for M. Fontan 

found there a stone on which was graven a wonderfully expressive outline of the cave-bear. 

In the Reindeer Epoch the taste for personal adornment had become considerably developed. They manufactured 

necklaces, bracelets and pendants, piercing for these purposes both shells and teeth, and the bony part of the ear of the 

horse. Amber, also, came into use. The aesthetic feeling was specially developed in the south. Some of the curious 

pieces of reindeer's horn, supposed to be staves of authority, are handsomely enchased. A considerable number of 

remarkable illustrations of primeval art of the Reindeer Epoch have become known to archaeology. They consist of 

sculptures and of carvings on slate, ivory, horn and bone. Among the latter is the entire outline of the mammoth etched

upon his own ivory. The Neolithic Epoch seems to have been marked by a decline in the; artistic feeling. The 

ornamentation of the pottery is more elaborate, and the finish of the stone and bone implements more symmetrical and 

neat; but we discover few relics of carving and engraving. 

Religiously, there is little to be affirmed or inferred of the palaeolithic tribes. Some of the curiously wrought flints may 

have served as religious emblems, and occasional discovery of deposits of food near the body of the dead may very 

naturally be regarded as evidence of a belief in the future life. In the Reindeer Epoch this class of evidences becomes 

very greatly augmented, as shown in the systematic and carefully provided burials in some of the tumulus-dolmens, 

and in the traces of funeral repasts in these and the rockshelters of Aurignac, Bruniquel and Furfooz. The numerous 

specimens of bright and shining minerals found about many settlements — as of hydrated oxyd of iron, carbonate of 

copper and fluor-spar— may have been used as amulets, and thus testify to the vague sense of the supernatural which 

characterizes the infancy of human society. The neolithic people add to such indications the erection of megalithic 

structures, some of which, surrounded by their cemeteries, as at Abury, in England, must naturally be considered as 

their sacred temples. 

Prehistoric man, in brief, and not less the most ancient Stone Folk than the people of the Iron Age, represented, in 

Europe, the infancy of his species. All his powers were undeveloped. Every evidence sustains us in the conclusion that 

he was not inferior in psychic endowments to the average man of the highest races; but he was lacking in acquired 

skill, and in the results of experience accumulated through a long series of generations, and preserved from 

forgetfulness by the blessings of a written language. 

The European society of which I have thus given a resume,* belonged, probably, to a Preadamic race; but we are not 

in a position to affirm that its date was Preadamic. However this may be, there is little doubt that its character was 

more primitive than that of the society organized by the early Adamites. From such indications as the Hebrew records 

offer us, as well as the superior intelligence of the Adamic race, we may safely conclude that the early Adamites 

organized a society far in advance of that which I have just sketched. ^Nevertheless, the early Adamites, according to 

the biblical accounts, were still in a stage of barbarism. Even the accounts are phrased and colored under the influence 

of a later culture. At best, the Asiatic antediluvians were wandering hordes of herdsmen. Their religious natures were 

strongly developed, but were little illuminated by rational conceptions. Even the Abrahamidae had made but moderate 

advance. The Egyptians, meantime, had reached the stage of a settled nationality. These disclosures cannot be 

accounted discrediting to the Hebrews — still less to humanity. We are all descended from rude herdsmen, or bloody 

warriors and half-clad savages. The fact that we are no longer such, is the rational basis of unlimited hopes of future 

advance. 

* Convenient and accessible compilations of the leading facts may be found in several recent works in the English 

language, of which I cite: Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and 

Customs of Modern Savages, 3d ed., London, 1872; Lyell, The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity oj Man, 4th ed., 

1873; Carl Vogt, Lectures on Man, his place in Creation and in the History of the Earth, trans, and ed. by James Hunt, 

London, 1864; Figuier, Primitive Man, revised trans., New York. 1870; Charles Rau, Early Man in Europe, New 

York, 1876.

Chapter 27 

Antiquity of Man 

ANOTHER question which confronts us, in view of the doctrine of Preadamitism, is the question of the antiquity of 

man's origin. This question assumes a widely different aspect since we have discovered that the biblical Adam was not 

the first man, but only the first White man. It does not involve the authority of the Sacred Scriptures to learn that the 

first man may have appeared a hundred thousand years ago. The first White man may have made his advent within the 

biblical period. 

Discussions on the antiquity of man have assumed three different and somewhat successive aspects. (1) It was assumed 

that the ascertained antiquity of the historical nations would shed light on the antiquity of the first man, supposed to be 

the biblical Adam. (2) It was assumed that the antiquity of the Stone Folk of Europe remounted to a higher date than 

that of the ancient nations, and would represent the antiquity of the human species. (3) It now appears that the antiquity 

of man will not be shown by either of these determinations; but that it probably rises vastly beyond the age of the 

Stone Folk. The way is open, of course, to discuss, on scientific grounds, the antiquity either of Adam, the Stone Folk, 

or the First Man. I shall offer some observations on each of these points. 

I. Epoch Of The First Man. To the determination of this very little can be contributed. The ear liest men left no records 

of themselves. The very country in which they lived has been swallowed up by the sea. Their monuments, if they 

created any, lie in the bottom of the Indian ocean. Their bones, if undissolved, are mingled with the fossil remains 

which must await another geological convulsion for their discovery and investigation. But the indigenous races of 

Africa and Australia may have left some record which will shed light on the date of the occupation of those continents. 

I imagine that in some of the caverns of Abyssinia or central Australia may yet be discovered relics of man which may 

fix his epoch relatively to some geological event. The research is not a hopeless one. Science stands ready to undertake 

it; and I doubt not, the records of some geological or anthropological society will one day tell whether man lived in 

Australia or central Africa as far back as the Miocene age of the world. We must not shrink from the discovery. 

II. Epoch Of The Stone Folk. When it was fully settled that men had occupied Europe in remote prehistoric times 

before the last great revolutions in the configuration of the earth's surface, and while yet animals now extinct were 

roaming in the forests, skulking in the caverns, and swimming in the rivers of the continent, it was too readily assumed 

that his European antiquity stretched back into preglacial times, or at least reached the figure of tens of thousands of 

years. This conclusion is unsustained by the historical, archaeological and geological evidences. The opinion seems to 

me wild and fanatical. The obscurity which hangs over the primeval folk of Europe seems to be ascribed by some men 

to their remoteness. They have no tangible ground for the reckless assumption that the records of the Stone Age date 

back a hundred thousand years.* Like objects seen in a fog, these events are not so remote as they seem. The latest 

"pile habitations" come down to the sixth century. In many instances the debris from lacustrine villages have yielded 

Roman coins and other works of Roman art. Homer's epic was composed but 900 years before our era, and the Stone 

Folk were then in full possession of central and northern Europe. It is to be noted that the Age of Stone thus descends 

to within 900 years of our era. History, indeed, declares that among the Lapps and Finns it descended to the time of 

Caesar. The civilized Pelasgians entered Greece 1400 years before Homer, and found the Stone Folk there. We have, 

then, at least twenty-five centuries of historical time for the duration of the Age of Stone. Of its earlier duration, 

European history, of course, has nothing to testify; but I discover no valid ground whatever for the opinion that the 

Stone Age in Europe began more than 2500 or 3000 years before Christ. 

The grounds on which the opinion of the high antiquity of European man has been based are mostly geological, and I 

will proceed to state them and expose their untenability. f

1. Preglacial remains of other animals have been mistaken for human remains. By preglacial remains are meant such 

as were deposited previously to the 

* Haeckel makes the antiquity of the Stone Folk "in any case more than 20,000 years," and "probably more than 

100,000 years," "perhaps many hundred thousand years." Haeckel, Naturliclie Schiipfunysgeschichte, p. 595. 

t The following views and methods of treatment have been employed by the present writer for many years. They were 

outlined in a "Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Geology," published in March 1869, and republished in 1870, and 

again, with amplifications, in January 1875. Mr. James C. Southall, meantime, in the course of his elaborate discussion 

of the subject, has employed many of the advent of the continental glaciers in Europe. We have heard it asserted from 

time to time that man appeared in Europe during the Tertiary Age. The evidence has always been slender, and has 

never been accepted by cautious investigators. The following are examples of the facts upon which certain 

revolutionary scientists have relied. 

Some bones found at Saint Prest, in France, in stratified sand and gravel, were observed to bear cuts, notches and 

scratches, which it was supposed had been made by the use of flint implements, and hence by human hands. These 

bones were associated with ELej>has meridionalis, an elephant which, from the frequent discovery of its remains, is 

known to have ranged from the Later Pliocene to the beginning of the Quaternary Age. But it was proved by 

experiment that very similar markings are produced upon bones by porcupines. Now, in the beds containing the bones 

in question were abundant remains of a large rodent, quite capable of causing the supposed human markings. To a 

candid mind, I think it must appear more plausible to refer the markings to a cause known to exist, than to ascribe 

them to human agency not known to exist at the time and place, and to disregard, in doing so, all our positive evidence 

as to the epoch of man's European advent. 

Again, the shell marls (faluns) of Leognan, near Bordeaux, enclose bones of an extinct manatee, and of certain 

chelonians and cetaceans, which bear marks appearing to have been made by human implements. 

facts and inferences in a similar way. See Southall, The Recent Origin of Man, as illustrated by Geology and the 

Modern Science of Prehistoric Archceology, Philadelphia, 1875, 8vo, pp. 606; and The Epoch of the Mammoth and the 

Apparition of Man upon the Earth, Philadelphia, 1878, 12mo, pp. 430. 

Certain anthropologists have been enthusiastically confident that such is the case. The manatee in question is known to 

be of Miocene age; and on the strength of such indications, the announcement of human remains in the middle of 

Tertiary time has been sounded from France around the world. But in the same deposits occur the remains of a 

carnivorous fish (Sargus serratus) whose serrated teeth fit exactly the markings on the fossil bones. A similar 

explanation probably awaits the furrowed Halitherium bones of Puance, as well as the notched and scratched bones of 

a cetacean {Balwnotus) described from Pliocene deposits by my good friend Professor Capellini.* 

Finally, at Thenay, also in France, occur flints in certain lower Miocene limestones which were at first declared to be 

the works of human hands. f But that opinion is scarcely entertained at present. Bushels of similar flint-chips may be 

picked up along some of the chalk sea-beaches. 

2. Human Remains erroneously supposed preglacial. A human skeleton found in volcanic breccia, near the town of 

Le Puy-en-Velay, in central France, was, for a time, supposed to have been inclosed by the same eruption which 

buried, in the same neighborhood, the remains of the Pliocene Elephas meridionalis.\

* Capellini, Womo pliocenico in Toscano, 1876, abstracted in Bolletino del R. Comitato Oeologico d'ltalia, Vol. VII, p. 

345. 

fCongres International «T Anthropologie et d'Archeologie prehistoriques, 1867, p. 67. 

| So good an anthropologist as Topinard still maintains the Pliocene age of these remains. Further, he recognizes 

human shellheaps of late Miocene age at Pouance, and affirms that man's existence in the lower Miocene Epoch "is a 

clearly revealed scientific fact." (Topinard, Anthropology, p. 436.) So Caspari also continues to associate these human 

remains with the "Miocene" mammoth. (Caspari, Urgeschichte der Menschheit, i, 184.) Haeckel is not so 

The elephant-bearing lava, nevertheless, was of a different character. Exactly the same lava as that containing human 

remains was subsequently observed, however, at another point. This did not enclose the bones of the Pliocene elephant, 

but it did enclose those of the mammoth or Champlain elephant, which lived after the reign of ice. These were 

associated, also, with the remains of other Champlain animals. Thus it was demonstrated that "the man of Denise," as 

he has been called, was not preglacial. What remains unaccountable is the persistence of French and German 

anthropologists in parading "the man of Denise" as a specimen from the depths of the Tertiary age. 

Again, the river-drifts of the Somme have been set down as glacial or preglacial; and hence the human flints which 

they contain were made by men who lived at a period vastly more remote than the accepted epoch of human creation. 

These are the relics, the reports of which sounded through the world thirty years ago, and first startled us with the 

claim that all the popular Adamic chronology was fallacious. A commission of English geologists went over to 

investigate the gravels, and concluded that they are post-glacial. Nevertheless, certain French geologists continued to 

proclaim "tertiary man," and some of them seem unable to unlearn that phrase. The opinion is hazardous. Abundant 

localities are now known, in the valley of the Somme, in which 

radical as to dismiss his caution: "Das wahrscheinlichste ist class dieser wichtigste Vorgang in der irdischen 

Schopfungsgescliichte gegeu Ende der Tcrtiarzeit, Stattfand; also, in der Pliocenen vielleicht schon in der Miocenen 

Periode—vielleicht aber auch erst iua Beginn der Diluvialzeit. Jedenfalls, lebte der Mensch als soldier in Mitteleuropa 

schon w&hrend der Diluvialzeit." (Hacckel, Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte, 4th ed., p. o94.) 

it appears, to a demonstration, that the entire rivervalley was excavated after the glacial drift was laid down. The valley 

is cut through the glacial drift and into the chalk. But the flint-bearing gravels are still more recent, having been 

deposited along the chalk slopes of the valley. Examples are seen at Menchecourt and other places. Exactly similar 

phenomena occur in the valley of the Ouse, in England, at Biddenham and Summerbonn Hill, and in the valley of the 

Lark, at Icklingham. 

In 1856 a human skull, and numerous bones of the same skeleton, were exhumed (but now mostly lost) from the Colle 

del Vento, in Liguria.* These were reported by Issel to be associated with extinct species of oyster, of Pliocene age. 

The age of the bones is questioned by Pruner Bey; and, as no naturalist saw the remains in situ, we must candidly 

await further investigation. 

A few years ago a sensation was created by the report of a human pelvis found at Natchez, Mississippi, in a deposit of 

undoubted preglacial age. But that learned traveler and sagacious observer Sir Charles Lyell, on visiting the spot, 

discovered that Indian graves had existed at the top of the bluff; and, though he had himself employed the facts as 

popularly interpreted, he at once recognized the strong probability that the pelvic bone had fallen down the bluff from 

the summit. From being the relic of a preglacial man, it suddenly became the bone of a red Indian, perhaps a hundred 

and fifty years old.

I have attempted to enumerate all the grounds on which belief in man's preglacial existence in Europe is based. Those 

grounds have all proved fallacious; and we are left to rest on the general tenor of the 

* Issel, in Congres International, 1867, pp. 75, 156. 

evidence connected with the occurrence of human remains. This proclaims, everywhere, the advent of man in Europe 

to have been subsequent to the general glaciation. But it happened during the progress of the disappearance of the 

glaciers. He was an inhabitant of France while the rivers were still swollen from the melting snows. He lived there at 

an early date in the Champlain Epoch. As he did not originate in Europe; as he was not planted under conditions so 

rigorous, it remains to determine where, and how long previously to his European advent, the human species had been 

in existence. The question relating to the primitive locality of man I have considered in a previous chapter; that 

concerning the absolute epoch of his advent I shall restrict to European man.* 

As to the human remains reported from beneath Pliocene lava-beds in California, I see no reason for rejecting the 

highly competent and recently repeated testimony of Professor J. D. Whitney, late Director of the Geological Survey 

of California. The following is from a reportf of a lecture delivered by Professor Whitney, in Cambridge, 

Massachusetts, April 27, 1878. During the Pliocene and previous epochs, the surface 

* The above conclusion respecting the absence of all valid evidence of the existence of Tertiary man in Europe has 

been formally enunciated by the Anthropological Society of London, as reported in Nature. Professor Huxley, in an 

address before the Department of Anthropology, in the Biological Section of the British Association, at its Dublin 

meeting, in 1878, said: "That we can get back as far as the Epoch of the Drift is, I think, beyond any rational question 

or doubt; that may be regarded as something settled; but when it comes to a question as to the evidence of tracing back 

man further than that — and recollect drift is only the scum of the earth's surface — I must confess that to my mind 

the evidence is of a very dubious character. (Nature, Aug. 22, 1878, p. 448.) 

t New York Tribune, April 30, 1878. 

of western California had become deeply eroded by the rivers. "During the Pliocene, California and Oregon became the 

theater of the most tremendous volcanic activity that has devastated the surface of the globe. The valleys of the rivers 

in the Sierra were filled, and much of the country, particularly toward the north of California, was entirely buried in 

lava and ashes. Since then the rivers, seeking new channels, have made for themselves deep canons, leaving their old 

beds deeply buried under the lava. These old buried river-gravels are very rich in gold, and extensive tunneling into 

the sides of the mountains and under the old lavas has been done. In one of these old river-bottoms, under the solid 

basalt of Table Mountain, many works of human hands have been obtained, as well as the celebrated human skull of 

the Pliocene, now so well known in connection with 'Brown of Calaveras.'* The age of these deposits under the lavas 

is known to be Pliocene, on account of the remains of the contemporaneously buried flora and fauna, which were 

almost totally unlike the flora and fauna of California at the present time. That the skull was found in those old, intact, 

cemented gravels, has been abundantly proved by evidence that cannot be gainsaid. At the time it came into the 

speaker's hands, the skull was still imbedded, in a great measure, in its original gravelly matrix. In this condition it was 

taken by him to Cambridge, where, under his charge, and in the presence of Professor Jeffries Wyman, of Harvard 

University, and Professor W. H. Brewer, of Yale College, the imbedding matrix was chiseled away. In and about the 

skull were found other human bones, including some that must have belonged to an infant. Chemical 

* An allusion to Bret Harte's poem.

analysis shows that it is a true fossil, its organic matter being almost entirely lost, and the phosphate of lime replaced 

by carbonate of lime. So far as human and geological testimony can go, there is no question but that the skull was 

found under Table Mountain, and is of Pliocene age." 

This is by far the best authenticated instance of Pliocene man which has been brought to light. There is only a 

presumption which weighs against it; the skull was not inferior to that of existing races. But we cannot counterpoise 

observation with presumption. I am ready to admit that man—probably Mongoloid man—wandered in California 

"before the mighty peaks of the Sierra Nevada or the Cordilleras were upheaved; before the cataracts of the Yosemite 

or the Yellowstone began to flow; before the glaciers carried their freight of rubble and precious minerals into the 

lowlands, and even before the vast canons were split through the solid rock." But this was a Preadamite man, and the 

fact has no bearing on the chronology of the Bible. It was a man of the same race as the Troglodytes of Europe, and 

affords ground for the a priori presumption that man may have found his way into Europe as early as the Pliocene 

Period. When we find relics of the European Stone Folk beneath beds of Pliocene lava, we shall have good ground for 

forming an opinion which cannot, at present, be scientifically entertained. Let us look at the geological relations of 

prehistoric men in Europe. 

The question of the absolute measure of time since the advent of man in Europe becomes simply the geological 

question of the remoteness of the epoch of general glaciation. Before I consider this question let me remind the reader 

of the probable relation of mankind to that grand geological event. There was a time, late in geological history, when 

nearly all Europe was covered by glaciers, as they now linger in the valleys of the Alps. During the same period all 

North America, as far as the Ohio river at Cincinnati, was similarly glaciated. It is my personal opinion that all 

northern Asia was buried in ice at the same time, though the boulder phenomena of glaciated surfaces may have been 

completely buried, in Siberia, by finer deposits of later date. Of course man was absent from these regions during the 

prevalence of the continental glaciers. But as man appeared in Europe immediately on the decline of the glaciers, and 

as these first European men were far advanced beyond the lowest human type, it must be that the infant races had been 

in existence in the tropical zone during the pendency of the great glaciers, that is, during the Glacial Period, if not also 

during some portion of Tertiary time. The great accumulation of snow and ice upon the northern hemisphere tended to 

depress the land, so to speak, in that hemisphere. In other words, the land in that hemisphere was partially sunken 

beneath the sea; and correspondingly, the water in the southern hemisphere was drawn northward from its ancient 

basin, and many formerly submerged areas became dry land. Hence the great ocean which stretched from western 

Europe through southern Asia to the China sea: hence Lemuria and the Malay continent, and the widespread areas 

which almost bridged the Pacific from Asia to South America: hence the necessary but well provided advent of the 

first men, in the southern hemisphere. Now, with all these land communications in the south, the feeble races, or at 

least the infant races, spread themselves over Lemuria, Malaya, Prepolynesia and Africa. They crowded northward to 

the shore of the great iceberg-bearing ocean. The tropical climates were less oppressive than now; chill winds swept, 

sometimes, across the ocean from the fields of perpetual snow which rested over Europe, as in our times the fiery 

simoon from the Sahara sweeps across the Mediterranean into Italy. 

A geological springtime arrived. The great glaciers began to shrink back from the fierce presence of the sun. Certain 

tribes had dwelt always near the borders of the secular ice-fields. They had crowded northward into the Iberian 

peninsula, and awaited there the opportunity to follow the glacial retreat. They were Mongoloids from the far preasiatic 

stem in eastern Asia; they swarmed into Europe while it was yet covered with the deluge of glacial dissolution; the 

rivers were permanently swollen, but these hardy men chose the situation for their home; and, as the glaciers continued 

to retreat, the Troglodytes continued to follow northward and take their dogs and their reindeer with them. 

It may be conjectured that it was about the same time that the Asiatic Mongoloids began to follow the retreating 

glaciers of their continent. I imagine all southern Asia was swarming with people of the Mongoloid and Dravidian 

types. The former were pressing forward as fast as the rigors of the geological winter yielded. While yet the borders of 

the Asiatic glacier lingered about the northern shores of the Caspian, I think the Adamites were in existence. The 

Zend-Avesta has some passages which convey the idea that the Iranians had encountered winters of intolerable 

severity. From this condition of things, events have marched with steady and even step to our own times. When we

come now to investigate the antiquity of the Stone Folk in Europe, it becomes simply an investigation of the 

remoteness of the last glaciation of the northern hemisphere. Many geologists have expressed the opinion that this is 

measured by tens, if not by hundreds of thousands, of years.* I propose to explain concisely the grounds on which such 

estimates have been based, and to show that they are far from conclusive. 

I. The astronomical hypothesis of glacial periods. It will be remembered by those who have read Professor Croll's 

epoch-making volume, on Climate and Time, that certain astronomical changes tend to bring the earth and the sun 

periodically into such relations as to extend the arctic ice-cap over the north temperate zone. These changes are the 

precession of the equinoxes, and variations in the obliquity of the ecliptic and in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit. 

M. Adhemar holds that the precession of the equinoxes leads to the glaciation of the northern hemisphere once in 

about 21,000 years. f If it is 21,000 years from one geological midwinter to another, it 

* Caspari says: "Dass die Steinger&the welche, zusammt den knochen des Mammuth, des Hohlenbaren und des 

Rennthiers, selbst bereits in miocanen Schichten angetroffen werden, ein nmthmassliches Alter von Hunderten von 

Jahrtausenden besitzen milssen." (Caspari, Urgeschichte der Menschheit, I, 184-5.) It must be expected that many 

men, who are not geologists, will be found ready to admit these rash claims. M. Francois Lenormant, an eminent 

archaeologist and historian, freely recognizes the existence of man even in Middle Tertiary time—and that not an 

undeveloped savage, but such an exalted being as Adam is pictured in the Bible. Subsequent savagism was the 

consequence of Adam's sin which called down the "divine curse"; and "the appearance of cold, intense and permanent, 

which man was scarcely able to support, and which rendered a great part of the earth uninhabitable," was one " among 

the chatisements which followed this fault of Adam." (F. Lenormant, Les premieres Civilisations, pp. 11, 18, 49, 50, 

53, 63.) 

t J. Adhemar, Revolutions de la Mer, Paris. 

must be 10,500 years from a geological midwinter to a geological midsummer. As we may assume the present to be a 

midsummer, we would be, on the theory of Adhemar, 10,500 years from the mid-epoch of the glacial period; or 

somewhat less than that from the decline of the glacial period, when man seems to have appeared in Europe. If this 

theory could be established, it would be satisfactory; but it is not generally accepted. Mr. Croll, on the other hand, has 

shown that variations in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit are a vastly more efficient cause of glaciation than the 

precession of the equinoxes. But the intervals between the maxima of eccentricity are vast, and they are of unequal 

value. The last maximum occurred about 80,000 years ago; and Mr. Croll is of the opinion that the last secular 

midwinter passed 80,000 years ago. This being the case, I should judge that the stage of decline which first witnessed 

man in Europe cannot be removed less than 50,000 years. That is, Mr. Croll's theory implies that the Stone Folk were 

in Europe 50,000 years ago. This, to my mind, throws doubt on the otherwise plausible theory; for I cannot believe the 

archaeological evidences sustain any such antiquity. 

II. Contemporaneousness of man toith animals now extinct. It was once a favorite doctrine of geology that animal 

extinctions date back to a remote past. When, therefore, we obtained evidence that man had been a contemporary of 

the extinct mammoth and cave-bear, it was natural to conclude that his antiquity is great. But geology had been 

mistaken. Extinctions of species are not necessarily remote in time. Extinctions have taken place within the scope of 

human memory and tradition. In New Zealand, the tradition is still vivid of the extinct. gigantic birds known as the 

moa, palapteryx, and notornis. In Madagascar and the Mauritius, the dodo, the solitaire and the aspyornis have become 

extinct in modern time. These were vestiges of the fauna of the old Lemurian continent. The Dutch navigators brought 

to Europe accounts, specimens, and a painting of the dodo as they saw it. There was once a stuffed, mounted skin of 

the dodo in the British Museum; but one summer it happened that the cleaners and renovators of the museum decided 

that the old moth-eaten skin was not worthy of the space it occupied. In the spirit of the Tammany Commissioners of 

Central Park, they threw it on the rubbish heap. The great British Museum contains now only an imperfect skeleton of 

the dodo; and no money will purchase a better specimen. Amongst mammals, the urus has become extinct from 

Europe since the time of Caesar. An arctic manatee has totally disappeared from the Atlantic ocean. The huge Rhytina

gigas is utterly extinct; and so, also, as far as we know, is the Balcena biscayensis, a whale which was once the basis 

of a nourishing industry on the coasts of France and Spain.* Dr. Schliemann, in the progress of his 

*" Prof. Turner, of Edinburgh, has been collecting and investigating a number of rare prints of sperm whales stranded 

on European coasts at the end of the sixteenth century and beginning of the seventeenth. One of these illustrates a 

whale caught in the port of Ancona in 1601, fifty-six feet long and thirty-three feet in girth. . . . The Netherlands seem 

to have had numerous specimens stranded. These, like those occasionally visiting the Scottish coast, are all males, 

which, when fully grown, appear to go singly in search of food. Other whales, as cachelots, visit the south in larger 

numbers. Over thirty cachelots, mostly females, were stranded in 1784 in the bay of Audierne, department of 

Finisterre; and a school visited Citta Nuova, in the Adriatic, in 1853." (Nature, No. 474, 28th Nov. 1878, p. 76.) 

excavations upon the site of ancient Troy, is reported to have discovered "billions" of shells of cockles and mussels 

"found in all the strata of the prehistoric debris" and said to be no longer found on the shores of the Hellespont and 

Êgean.* 

In the next place, many species are visibly approaching extinction. The great auk of Newfoundland was recently 

considered extinct, as no specimen had been seen for twenty-five years. But I understand that in 1877 or 1878 some 

fresh eggs have been seen. f The Labrador duck is said to be extinct, or nearly so. As far back as 1862-1867 these 

ducks were of common occurrence in the Fulton Market, New York. Suddenly they became scarce; and the proprietors 

of museums find that this duck is now unattainable. The specimens in existence are even fewer than those of the great 

auk.:]: So the capercailzee, a species of grouse exceedingly common in Denmark in the Stone Age, is at present 

seldom seen. The great aurochs, or European bison, would long since have disappeared had not the Prussian 

government provided for its preservation in the for- * London 2Y»i«s,27th Nov. 1878; Nature, No. 474, 28th Nov. 

1878, p. 85. Mr. Alfred Newton, in an address at the meeting of the British Association, in 1876, intimated that the 

zebra has become extinct within twenty-five years. (Nature, 14th Sept. 1876; Am. Jour. Sci , Dec. 1876, p. 476.) In 

reference to this there must be a mistake, for Stanley, in his journey "Through the Dark Continent," speaks of shooting 

the zebra for food. 

It is said that no less than thirty species of birds and mammals have become extinct within historic times. (Pozzy, La 

Teree et la Recit Biblique, p. 418.) 

t " Dr. Hays, in his 'Land of Desolation,' mentions that one of these auks was killed in Greenland in 1867, but that the 

native who killed it, not knowing its value, sacrificed it to appease his appetite." (Letter in Cincinnati Commercial, 

11th Aug. 1878, p. 2.) 

% New York Tribune, 22d Dec. 1877. 

ests of Lithuania. The "Big Trees" of California belong to a species which is on the verge of extinction. Thousands of 

years ago the sequoia was exceedingly abundant in America and Greenland; but it survives now, like so many other 

organic forms, to report some tidings of a remote past. In short, it may be said that all animal species which are unable 

to occupy the continent with civilized man are destined to extinction, and are in process of extinction. The beaver, the 

otter, the wolverine, the wild-cat, the panther, the bear, the red deer, and many other mammals which might be named, 

are doomed to disappear from the earth unless they can find homes in regions beyond the reach of civilized man.* 

To these classes of examples may be added some other extinctions which are evidently recent, though we possess no 

articulate traditions of the existence of the species in human times. The Indian, indeed, retained a savage's tradition of 

the mammoth,— the great beast which his ancestors hunted, and which has left its bones in all the peat-beds of the

United States and British America. I have myself exhumed the remains of the mammoth, in Michigan, from a deposit 

of peat not over eighteen inches deep; and, on the contrary, I have received flint arrow-heads from the same county, 

which had been exhumed from beneath seven feet of peat. From the mounds near Davenport, Iowa, was obtained a 

pipe carved in the form of an elephant — body, limbs, head, trunk, all but tusks, f—as good an evidence as the ivory 

etchings from the Madeleine Cave that man and the mammoth have been con- * See further, on sub-fossil and recently 

extirpated birds, Encyc. B-it., 9th ed., III, 731. 

tSee notice in American Naturalist, Apr. 1879, p. 269. 

temporaries. The Irish elk has left its giant skeleton in bogs which cannot be older than those of Denmark, and which 

are rich in the relics of the Stone Folk. This species, indeed, is known to have survived till the fourteenth century.* 

It seems that we must regard the gradual extinction of species as the order of nature. Species are constantly dropping 

out of existence. The contemporaneousness of man with the extinct mammoth is no more proof of man's high antiquity 

than the coexistence of the dodo and the Dutch painter is proof that the Dutchman lived a hundred thousand years ago. 

3. Tlie magnitude of the geological changes since man's advent. When we say that man was witness of the 

disappearance of the continental glacier from Europe, we seem to imply that he lived in a remote antiquity. When we 

learn that since man's advent England and Scandinavia have been joined to the continent, the North Sea has been dry 

land, and the Thames a tributary of the Rhine, we seem to sink back into geological time, where anything less than an 

antiquity of a hundred thousand years for man would be a ridiculous demand. When we conclude that the Mongoloid 

came to North America over an isthmus which once existed at Behring's Straits, or reached South America at a date so 

remote that a continent has since disappeared; when we discover evidence of the "red" man's existence in Illinois while 

the prairie region was still the bed of a great lake, we feel strongly tempted to believe that a great cycle of geological 

history separates us from the red man's advent in America. When we find his bones buried beneath cubic miles of 

ancient lava, and built 

* On indigenous quadrupeds and birds extirpated from Great Britain see Lyell, Principles of Geology, 8th ed., p. 660. 

into the very structure of mighty mountains, we feel a valid assurance of a geological date for immigration to America. 

When we find relics of pottery buried at the depth of ninety feet beneath the mud of the Nile, we feel that the 

Egyptians and Chinese have claimed an antiquity no greater than the evidences sustain. 

But I believe, on sober reflection, that our imaginations have been excited. The mystery and the magnitude of 

geological changes seem to relegate them to the remote ages of convulsion and cataclysm. Let us not be frightened. 

We are in the midst of great changes, and are scarcely conscious of it. We have seen worlds in flames, and have felt a 

comet strike the earth. We have seen the whole coast of South America lifted up bodily ten or fifteen feet and let down 

again in an hour. We have seen the Andes sink 220 feet in 70 years. The Chinese possess authentic records of changes 

in the location of great rivers — especially the Hwangho. This river has changed its mouth two or three times. 

Sometimes it discharges its waters into the Gulf of Pechili, and sometimes into the Yellow Sea. When it changes its 

outlet, many thousand square miles become inundated. Vast transpositions have also taken place in the coast-line of 

China. The ancient capital, located, in all probability, in an accessible position near the center of the empire, has now 

become nearly surrounded by water, and its site is on the peninsula of Corea.* 

We have seen the glaciers make progress in their retreat and disappearance. An ice-peak in the Tyrolese Alps has 

lowered 18£ feet in a few years. It has also shrunken along its borders. The Mer de

*See Pumpelly, in Smithsonian Memoirs, 4to, Vol. XV., art. iv; also Von Rickthof'en, China, pp. 285-6-7. 

Glace is a hundred feet lower or thinner than it was thirty years ago. At Chamonix I conversed with the Chief of the 

Guides, an old man who had recorded the phases of the glaciers for more than fifty years. He pointed out the limits of 

the Mer de Glace and Glacier des Bossons in 1818, 1819 and 1820. He showed me huge boulders which had formerly 

been deposited in the valleys near the termini of these glaciers. He pointed out the striations made on the bounding 

walls of the glacier valleys. From these records I perceived that these two great glaciers have receded, in fifty years, 

not less than half a mile; and the volume of ice is lowered at least 200 feet.* From the foot of the Mer de Glace I 

traced the footsteps of the receding glacier down the valley of the Arveiron — down the valley of the Arve —down 

the Arve all the way to Geneva. Then I felt that I also had gazed on the ancient glaciers. I had seen how their 

stupendous work had been done. I had come upon the earth in time to see the continental glaciers of Europe on their 

retreat up the gorges of the Alps. I felt the Stone Folk drawn down in time toward our own times. I could look over the 

abyss of years, and seize its span in my apprehension. We are witnesses of the retreat of the glaciers. When the Stone 

Folk came to Europe the southern border of the continental ice-field was, perhaps, on the Rhine; now it is in Russia 

and Siberia and Greenland. Even in America, we arrive in time to glimpse some vestiges of the ancient glacier. Those 

remarkable ice-wells in Vermont, in New York and 

* See also some valuable data in : £ay0t, Guide Itineraire du Mont Blanc. The reader will also find a large number of 

collateral facts in Tyndall, Hours of Exercise in the Alps. 

Wisconsin,* I judge to be fed only by buried fragments of the old ice. In Siberia the buried ice, also, has grass-covered 

soils above it; and Dr. Edmund Andrews has called attention to the marks of ancient ice-blocks buried in the drift, 

which were brought to light in excavating the tunnel for the water-works of Chicago. Nor have the veritable glaciers 

become extinct from the United States. In the deep gulches of the Sierra Nevada are sundry remnants of a glacier once 

continent-wide. On these repositories of ancient ice has accumulated the "dust of ages," to which the cosmical dust 

which comes to us out of the depths of space has made contributions not inconsiderable. But they lie there in their 

senescence, to proclaim a chapter of past events in American history — fossil glaciers, as eloquent as a fossil world. 

The truth is, we are not so far out of the dust and smoke of antiquity as we had supposed. Antiquity is at our doors. 

The rubbish of geological revolutions is strewed about our feet. We are in the midst of geological history. The Indian 

saw Lake Michigan spread its waters over Illinois. We have seen cities grow up where our childhood knew only a 

swamp; and our children will see the swamp usurp the site of the lake which nourishes it. It is not a remote epoch 

which witnessed the laying down of the site of New 

* On ice-wells in Vermont see Hitchcock's Geological Report, Vol. I, p. 192; in Owego, N. Y., Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 

XXXVI, p. 104. For an account of an ice-mountain in Virginia see Amer. Jour. So'.,Vol. XLV, p. 78; forone in 

Wallingford,Vermont,see Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. LVI, p. 331. For an account of ice-deposits in the Alps and Jura, see 

Edinb. Phil. Jour:, Vol. VIII, p. 1, also p. 290. On ice-caverns in Russia see Geology of Russia, Vol. I, p. 186, and 

Lippincott's Gazetteer, art. " Yakotsk." On the relics of glaciers in the Sierra Nevada see Joseph Le Conte, in Am. Jour. 

Sci. and Arts, [3] III, p. 125; X, 126, and Proc. Acad. Sci. Cat., IV (part v), 259. 

Orleans. The land grows seaward 338 feet annually. Humphreys and Abbot estimated that the whole delta of the 

Mississippi had been laid down in 5000 years.* De Lanoye makes the delta of the Nile but 6350 years old.f The Sea of 

Azof once extended farther east than the Euxine, and the Oarus or Volga emptied into it.^: The Greeks retained a 

tradition of great hydrographic changes about the Black Sea. The Symplegades, or floating islands, were only 

landmarks which changed their positions relatively to the changing shore-line. There was a time when the rocky 

barriers of the Thracian Bosphorus gave way and the Black Sea subsided. It had covered a vast area to the north and 

east; now this area became drained, and was known as the ancient Lectonia — from 2000 B.c. the home of the warlike 

Scythians,— now the prairie region of Russia and the granary of Europe. Bergstrasser has shown that during its former 

high level it was confluent with the Caspian and Aral seas ;§ and thus another Mediterranean stretched eastward 

beyond the Dardanelles. An American engineer has proposed to reunite them. |

Such events have taken place in historic times 

* Humphreys and Abbot, Report on the Mississippi River, 1861. 

t De Lanoye, Ramses le Grand ou VEgypt il y a 3300 ans, trans., New York, 1870. 

% Rawlinson's Herodotus, III, 06 and map. Herodotus says this sea, in his time, was not very much inferior to the 

Euxine in size. Bk. IV, 86. 

§ Bergstrasser, Reunion de la mer Caspienne et la mer Noire, Paris. See further, Huxley, Critiques and Addresses, p. 

164. 

|| Spalding, in Report to Geographical Commission of Russia. The nature of the ancient hydrographical conditions of 

the Aralo-Caspian region, and the advantages and practicability of restoring them, are the objects of a Russian 

scientific survey now in progress. 

and before our eyes.* I think we must admit that the greatest events which separate us from the age of the Stone Folk 

do not necessitate many thousands of years for their consummation. Whether, then, we consider the magnitude of the 

geological changes since the advent of European man, or his contemporaneousness with animals now extinct, or his 

succession upon the continental glacier, we do not discover valid grounds for assuming him removed by a distance 

exceeding six to ten thousand years.f 

Investigators occupied with the relics of primeval man, in Europe, have endeavored to deduce a numerical expression 

for his antiquity from the indications of these relics. Morlot, from the study of the layers constituting the "cone of the 

Tiniere,"—a deposit formed by a torrent discharging itself in the Lake of Geneva,— concluded that the Polished Stone 

Epoch dates back 4700 to 7000 years. Gillieron, from researches at the Bridge of Thiele, is led to fix the Epoch of 

Polished Stone at 6700 years. Steenstrup, from investigations in the bogs of Denmark, is led to regard 4000 years as a 

minimum for the Epoch of Polished Stone. De Ferry, from a study of the riverdrifts of the Saone, puts the Polished 

Stone Epoch at 4383 years, and the Epoch of the Mammoth at 5844 to 7305 — fortunate if the thousands are as exact 

as the units in these figures. Arcelin, from a separate 

* Further on this subject see Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, 3d ed., p. 419, etc.; art. "Ogyges," in Anthon's Classical 

Dictionary; Warren, on the drainage of the St. Croix Lake, in Proc. Amer. Assoc., XVIII, 207, and his Official Report. 

t This is the conclusion of Dr. Friedrich Pfafl', Die neuesten Forschmigen und Theorien auf dem Gebiete der 

Schopfungsgeschichte, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1868. I do not intend this estimate to cover the age of the "Man of 

Calaveras," who seems to have lived in Pliocene time. 

study of the drifts of the Saone, put the Roman Epoch at 1500 to 1800 years; the Iron or Keltic Age, from 1800 to 

2700 years; the Age of Bronze, from 2700 to 3000 years; the Epoch of Polished Stone, from 3000 to 4000 years; and 

the blue clays, containing remains of the mammoth, from 6700 to 8000 years. Le Hon, in view of all the results and all 

the facts, publishes the following estimates:

Years. 

Appearance of Iron in the West, 2700 Age of Bronze, properly so-called, - - 2700 to 4000 Age of Polished Stone 

(Neolithic), - - 4000 to 6000 Age of Reindeer, to beyond, - - 7000 

Age of the Mammoth (Palaeolithic), - - not estimated 

It cannot be pretended that these estimates are extravagant. They are so much more moderate and rational than the wild 

guesses in which some geologists and anthropologists have indulged, that I feel indisposed to offer any adverse 

criticisms. These estimates, it will be noticed, are based on the legitimate data of an archaeological induction, and not 

on any theory of the length of geological periods; still less on any astronomical hypothesis whose exigencies exceed, 

so egregiously as Croll's, the demands of the facts to be chronologically coordinated. Our historical data are 

sufficiently accordant. When the Hamitic Pelasgians entered Greece, about 2500 b.c., they introduced bronze and iron. 

We have no evidence that bronze had not been known at an earlier period. They found the Stone Age still persisting, at 

that date, in southeastern Europe, and were the means of bringing it to a termination. But in central and northern 

Europe the Age of Stone was prolonged many centuries. 

At dates earlier than 2500 B.C., we have some historical evidence that the Stone Folk were in Europe. It is thought that 

the Iberians, from Atlantis and the northwest part of Africa, settled in the southwest of Europe at a period earlier than 

the settlement of the Egyptians in the northeast of Africa. In short, the Iberians spread themselves over Spain, Gaul and 

the British islands as early as 4000 or 5000 b.c. They found everywhere that the Stone Folk had preceded them. That 

is, we are in possession of historical data which lead to the conclusion that the Age of Stone stretches back 5800 to 

6800 years. This date is determined from Egyptian records which commemorate warlike movements among the Iberian 

Libyans, the Hamitic Pelasgians and the Aryan Greeks. For instance, the Libyan Amazons of Diodorus,— that is to 

say, the Libyans of the Iberian race,— must be identical with the Libyans with brown or grizzly skin, of whom 

Brugsch has already pointed out the representation figured on the Egyptian monuments of the Fourth Dynasty.* These 

representations, according to the chronology of Brugsch, mount to 3500 b.c., or according to Chabas, to 3000 B.c. The 

Fourth Dynasty, according to Wilkinson, dates from about 2420 B.c. At this date the Iberians had become sufficiently 

powerful to attempt the conquest of the known world. It is easy to believe that one or two thousand years had elapsed 

since their first appearance in Europe; and this concession brings us to, say, 4000 B.c., as the remotest date to which 

historical information authorizes us t& trace the Stone Folk, who were the predecessors of the Iberians. 

The Stone Folk had lived somewhere, if not in Europe, at an earlier date. The Iberians had already consumed unknown 

centuries in wanderings, wars and 

* Jubainville, Les premiers Habitans de VEurope, p. 47. 

the development of a rude civilization; but the scene of their activities was probably within the tropical or sub-tropical 

regions of Africa and Asia. 

The third aspect of the question of man's antiquity, "The Epoch of the Adamites," I reserve for another chapter.

Chapter 28 

The Patriarchal Periods 

A DISCUSSION of the "Epoch of the Adamites" is simply an examination of the chronological data of Genesis. In the 

eighth and ninth chapters of the present work I have presented all which needs to be said respecting the historical and 

monumental chronology of the Hebrews and other ancient nations. I shall only offer here some views connected with 

the allowance of a longer time between Adam and Abraham than the accepted chronology assumes. 

In maintaining that the Black (and other) races are descended from Preadamites, I have depended largely on the truth 

of the two following propositions: (1) The time from Adam (according to accepted chronology) to the date at which 

we know the Negro type had been fully established is vastly too brief for so great a divergence, in view of the 

imperceptible amount of divergence since such date. (2) No amount of time would suffice for the divergence of the 

Black races from the white man's Adam, since that would imply degeneracy of a racial and continental extent, and this 

is contrary to the recognized principle of progress in nature. When the question is raised in reference to the Brown 

races, the chronological and physiological difficulties are less; but the phenomena of race persistence, ethnic affinities 

and geographical distribution force us to the conviction that their moderate inferiority to the White race is something 

also coordinated with a Preadamic origin. But even this conclusion does not wholly relieve us from the inconvenience 

of a chronological strait. Admitting Adam to be the progenitor only of the Mediterranean race, the collocation of 

events in the Genesiacal records creates an urgent demand for more time than the Usherian chronology allows.* What 

we need is a longer interval between Adam and the dawn of written history, and especially between Adam and the 

Deluge. The very record itself presents us ethnological data which would be greatly accommodated and relieved by a 

larger allowance of time. The fourth chapter of Genesis, for instance, appears to have been composed before the 

Deluge— perhaps in the 500th year of Noah (Genesis v, 32); but at that time there were peoples in existence, 

descended from Cain, who were celebrated for agriculture, mechanics and music. They were, indeed, descended from 

Jabal, Jubal and Tubal-Cain, of the eighth generation from Adam. But, as the ten generations from Adam to the 500th 

year of Noah 

* Prichard, in his great work on the Physical History of Mankind, not only maintains the unity of the human species 

and the Adamic origin of all men, but feels compelled to admit that the magnitude of the transformations which have 

taken place in human races demands a much larger allowance of time than accepted chronology affords. Bunsen, as I 

have stated, appropriates 10,000 years. The Duke of Argyll says: "The older the human family can be proved to be, the 

more possible and probable it is that it has descended from a single pair"; and he intimates that the Bible and science 

concur in allowing a much higher antiquity than generally assumed. (Primeval Man, pp. 126,128, etc.) Scientific 

opinion is virtually unanimous that the popular systems of chronology do not afford sufficient time for the 

diversification of human races. Compare Lyell, Principles of Geology; also the authorities already cited. Friedrich 

Muller records the opinion that the Hamites came out of Asia into Africa 9000 or 10000 B.C. These pushed on to 

Libya and Êthiopia. The Êgyptian immigration is fixed " at least at 8000 to 9000 before our epoch." (Fr. Milller, 

Norara-Expedition, Ethnologie, p. 98.) 

cover only 1526 years, we may assume the eight generations to Tubal-Cain to cover about 1245 years; and hence, 

from Tubal-Cain to the 500th year of Noah we have only about 300 years, which is insufficient time, in the infancy of 

the world, for the growth of tribes and nations and culture which seem then to have been in existence. 

Take another case. The tenth chapter of Genesis narrates a series of events which took place after the Flood and before 

the division of the land in the time of Peleg. Computing the time in the usual way, the interval from the Flood to the 

birth of Reu, the son of Peleg, was 131 years; and, according to the usual rate of increase, the posterity of Noah must 

have amounted to about 900 persons. This chapter was written in the time of Peleg, as otherwise the history would

have been brought down to a later dare, as it is in the eleventh chapter. But note the progress which had been made in 

the settlement of the world and the building of cities at the date of this composition. The posterity of Japheth had 

moved westward and taken possession of the islands of the Aegean and the Mediterranean, and probably the adjacent 

continental regions, and had spread over the vast territory of Scythia on the north, and penetrated to Spain on the 

west.* They had become separated into distinct "languages, families and nations." This is a glimpse of ethnic events 

which we cannot reasonably assume to have taken place in 131 years. The conviction is strengthened the more we 

consider the vitality of linguistic forms among the peoples of Mediterranean race. Again, the descendants of Ham had 

accomplished even greater results. Egypt had been settled, and its population had become differ 

* See chapter v. 

entiated into at least eight tribes or nations.* Phoenician Sidon had been built, and the Phoenicians had grown into 

nine peoples, "and afterward the families of the Canaanites spread abroad." But before the Canaanites, there were 

present in Palestine the Rephaim, Zuzim, Emim and others. Who were these peoples? I have heretofore insisted on the 

probability that they were Hamites. Whoever they were, their career in Canaan, antecedently to the presence and 

productive activity of the Semites, deepens the conviction that 131 years is an insufficient allowance of time. Hamitic 

Nimrod, also, or his posterity, had planted cities. Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh were the "beginning of his 

kingdom." Then Asshur arose among the Nimrodites and led away a colony, which built other walled cities—Nineveh, 

Rehoboth, Calah and Resen, which was "a great city." Thus the descendants of Ham had developed "families and 

tongues and countries and nations." The posterity of Shem, also, had become divided into "families and tongues and 

nations," and dispersed to many "lands." Accordingly the descendants of Noah, in the days of Peleg, had become 

numerous "nations," and divided the earth among themselves. Now, it is difficult to believe that these cities and 

nationalities had come into existence from one family in the space of 131 years. 

A similar set of considerations is furnished by the eleventh chapter of Genesis, which seems to be a distinct document, 

and begins back at an epoch near the Flood, and preserves the history down to Abraham. Journeying westward, the 

Adamites, as yet one family, attempted to build a tower, and were defeated. Still, it appears, a city known as Babel 

* See chapter iii. 

rose into existence; and it would be fair to presume that this and the other cities named as the beginning of Nimrod's 

kingdom, instead of being built by him or his successors, were already in existence long before the time of Nimrod. 

How much, then, beyond 131 years must the time from Noah to Peleg be elongated? 

I have heretofore employed such facts to indicate the grounds of the biblical presumption that the population of the 

world, in early Genesiacal times, had not all been derived from the stem of Noah, or even of Adam. This argument 

assumes strength in proportion to the confidence with which we hold to the Usherian chronology; and those who 

defend that chronology must consistently admit the probability of Preadamites. But those who deny, for any reason, 

the existence of Preadamites, must consistently admit the pressure of biblically recorded facts for a more generous 

chronology than Usher has left us. That is the point here made. But, for my own part, I do not think one exigency 

excludes the other. We must admit the evidence of Preadamites regardless of chronology; and we must admit the 

existence of a demand for more time, regardless of the existence of Preadamites. 

This unsatisfactory brevity of the popular chronology confers great interest and importance on the attempt recently 

made by Rev. T. P. Crawford* to show that the Genesiacal language, when properly interpreted, expands the 

patriarchal periods to more than four times the accepted length. I deem it an

* Crawford, The Patriarchal Dynasties from Adam to Abraham shown to cover 10,500 years, and the highest human 

life only 187. 12mo, pp. 165, Richmond, Va., Josiah Ryland & Co. Mr. Crawford dates from Tung Chow, China. 

appropriate sequel of this discussion of the antiquity of man to explain Mr. Crawford's method. 

The fundamental position assumed by the author is a reformed reading of the genealogical tables contained in the fifth 

and eleventh chapters of Genesis; the first of which traces the posterity of Adam to Noah, and the other traces the 

posterity of Noah to Abraham. For the purpose of giving an intelligible explanation of Mr. Crawford's reformed 

reading, I here reproduce the biblical paragraph touching the family of Adam: 

"And Adam lived an hundred and thirty years, and begat a son, in his own likeness, after his image; and called his 

name Seth. And the days of Adam, after he had begotten Seth, were eight hundred years; and he begat sons and 

daughters. And all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years; and he died." 

A similar paragraph is recorded respecting each of the antediluvian patriarchs. Now, the author maintains that the word 

Adam is employed, above, in a personal, and afterward in a family, sense; that the first clause denotes the whole life of 

Adam, and not his age at the birth of Seth; that YOLaD, translated "begat," signifies rather "appointed,"* and refers to 

Adam's designation of Seth (in place of Abel) to be his successor; that "likeness" and "image" refer, not to personal 

appearance, but to character and office, the name Seth itself signifying "The Appointed";! 

*The verb YilLaD, according to Gesenius, signifies (1) To bring forth; (2) To beget; and under this comes the 

signification, To constitute, to appoint, as in Ps. ii, 7, "Thou are my son, this day have I begotten (constituted) thee" as 

King. A parallel reading is iîvvrjaa in 1 Cor. iv, 15, "In Christ Jesus I have begotten you through the gospel." 

t Gen. iv, 25, SeTh seems to be from SITh, to set, to place, to replace. 

that "Adam," in the next clause, refers to the tribe or family of Adam; that the Adamic family continued to be ruled 

over by successors, not in the line of Seth, for a period of 930 years; that thereafter the representatives of the Sethite 

line acceded to the kingship for 912 years, when the family of Enos assumed government, and so on. 

These positions are argued with much ability. That the first clause expresses the whole life of Adam is maintained on 

the following grounds: 1. The Hebrew never employs the verb lived with definite numbers to indicate the age of a man 

at the birth of a son; but it invariably says such a one was a son of so many years when his son was born, or some 

other event took place. Many passages are cited, of which, see Genesis xxi, 5; xvi, 16; xvii, 24; xxi, 4; Leviticus ix, 3; 

Joshua xiv, 7; 1 Kings xiv, 21; xx, 42. On the contrary, the verb lived denotes the whole term of a man's life. See 

Genesis 1, 22; xxiii, 1; xxv, 7; xlvii, 28; v, 5; xi, 11; ix, 28; 2 Kings xiv, 17; Job xlii, 16. 2. Antediluvian life is 

substantially asserted to have been one hundred and twenty years, on an average.* 3. There is nowhere in the Old 

Testament any allusion to such enormous ages as eight hundred and nine hundred years. On the contrary, Abraham, 

who was promised a "good old age," died at one hundred and seventyfive years. f So Isaac, at one hundred and eighty 

years, was "old and full of days."^; For further details of the reasoning I must refer the reader to the work itself. A 

paraphrase of the passage concerning Adam would, therefore, read somewhat as follows: 

* See Gen. vi, 3, "Yet his days shall be a hundred and twenty years." 

t Gen. xv, 15: xxv, 7, 8.

% Gen. xxxv, 28, 29. 

And Adam lived a hundred and thirty years. And at the close of his life he appointed his son to be his spiritual heir 

and successor, and designated him Seth, "The Appointed." And the duration of the house of Adam, after the 

appointment of Seth, was eight hundred years, represented by male and female descendants. And the whole duration of 

the house of Adam was nine hundred and thirty years, and it ceased to exist. 

The paragraphs touching the other antediluvian patriarchs are to be similarly understood. It will thus appear that the 

average duration of life was then one hundred and twenty years. A similar interpretation of the eleventh chapter gives 

the average duration of life after the Flood at one hundred and twenty-eight years. After Abraham, the ages, as stated 

in the sacred text, range from one hundred and ten to one hundred and eighty years, with an average of one hundred 

and thirty-five years. These conclusions are countenanced by the duration of human life among other nations of 

parallel antiquity. The utmost limit of Egyptian life was one hundred and ten years. The average life of the eight kings 

of the second Chaldaean Dynasty was eighty-eight years. Under the first Chinese Dynasty, of four hundred and thirtynine 

years, average life was seventy-seven years; under the second, of six hundred and forty-four years, it was sixtynine 

years. These two dynasties extended from the days of Peleg to those of Solomon. Many other facts tend to show 

that human life, in the most ancient times, had a duration not far from that of the Hebrew patriarchs, if we interpret the 

first clause of each paragraph as proposed by Mr. Crawford; while the marvelous duration of human life according to 

the popular interpretation is opposed to every item of knowledge which we possess from other sources, and is 

supported only by an interpretation of a document claiming to have originated in the infancy of civilization, and 

recorded in a language which for centuries has been extinct. 

Applying these principles to the genealogical tables of Genesis, we obtain the following chronological table: 

Years. 

From Adam to the Flood, - 7,737 From the Flood to the Birth of Abraham, - - 2,763 

From Adam to Abraham, - 10,500 From the Birth of Abraham to Christ, - - 2,000 

From Adam to Christ. ----- 12,500 From Christ to A.D. 1880, 1,880 

From Adam to 1880, 14,380 

Such an interpretation of the faint traces in our possession of a biblical chronology, whatever its apparent adaptation to 

the facts, and the exigencies which they create, must naturally stand or fall on the result of Hebrew investigation. It is 

the Bible alone which decides what we must understand by Adam; and the Bible alone must teach us what intervals its 

authors intended to interpose between Adam and Abraham. I cannot repress the hope, however, awakened by the 

sanctions of my own slender knowledge of the biblical language, that thorough and unprejudiced Hebrew scholarship 

will find satisfactory ground to accept Mr. Crawford's theory. Such a result, whatever the opposite conclusion may 

signify, would greatly strengthen the claims of the Pentateuch upon the devout credence of intelligent minds.

Chapter 29 

Preadamitism in Literature 

THE reader will be interested, before leaving this subject, in a few notes on some phases of opinion expressed by other 

writers. Like the conception of the secular length of the "days" of Genesis, the doctrine of Preadamites was a direct 

outgrowth of biblical interpretation. As Augustine, one of the church Fathers, educed from Genesis the idea of aeonic 

creative days, so Peyrerius, a Dutch ecclesiastic, first conceived that certain passages of St. Paul's Epistles clearly 

imply the existence of races before Adam. 

In 1655 a small book appeared in Paris which had for its theme the novel and alarming subject of Prae-Adamites. Its 

full title, translated from the Latin, in which the work was written, is as follows: Prce-Adamites, or a Treatise on the 

Twelfth, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Verses of the Fifth Chapter of the Epistle of Saint Paul to the Romans, from which 

it is concluded that the First Men existed before Adam.* The book appeared anonymously; and those acquainted with 

the spirit of the dominant ecclesiasticism of that date will readily divine the motive of the author. It soon became 

known, however, that the world was indebted for this brochure to the pen 

* Prce-Adamitce, sive Exercitatio super Versibus duodecimo, decimotertio et decimo-quarto, capitis quinti Epistolce 

D. Pauli ad Romanos, quibus inducuntur Primi Homines ante Adamum conditi. 

and courage of La Peyrere, a learned and sagacious priest of the orthodox faith. 

The work was an attempt to prove, from biblical authority, that men must have lived on the earth before Adam. Within 

a year appeared its complement from the pen of the same author, in which the whole subject was newly argued, and 

more thoroughly discussed. This was a Theological System, based on the Hypothesis of Prm-Adamites.* The two 

works may now be found occasionally, vellum-bound, in one volume, 18mo, and published, without place, "anno 

salutis MDCLV." 

The next year a book appeared in London with the following title: Man before Adam, or a Discourse upon the Twelfth, 

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Verses of the Fifth Chapter of the Epistle of Paul to the Romans. By which are proved that 

the First Men were created before Adam. This work, in its argument as well as its title, is substantially a reproduction 

of Peyrerius. It embodies, however, the Systema Theologicum under the single title of the first work. 

In the undeveloped stage of scientific inquiry existing two and a quarter centuries ago, it is certain that no investigation 

respecting Preadamites could have been conducted on true anthropological principles. In Europe the Bible was the 

source and criterion of all belief. Whatever the ecclesiastical authorities had accepted and sanctioned was held to be 

taught in the Bible. Whatever the ecclesiastical authorities did not understand the Bible to teach was generally regarded 

as unimportant, if not heretical. The meaning of the Bible, however, was extracted in accordance with the simple and 

narrow canons of grammar. No light was 

* Systema Theologicum ex Prceadamitarum Hypothesi. Pars Prima. 

admitted from the luminous realm of God's universal truth. There are doctors high in authority among us at this day 

who maintain that grammatical structure and Hebrew usage are sufficient to light the way to the meaning of the darkest 

passages of Revelation. But the scriptural writers have sometimes plunged into the midst of the profound and 

mysterious facts of science; why not, then, summon all our knowledge to the task of evoking the meaning of the text?

I maintain, against the narrow and pernicious dogma that the Bible is sufficient everywhere to interpret itself, that, on 

the contrary, it was ordained to be interpreted under the concentrated light of all the learning which has been created 

by a God-given intelligence in man. I believe the biblical documents, so far as dictated by inspiration, have been 

written for all time; and that their meaning is often so deep and so rich that the accumulated learning of the latest 

generation of men will be unable to exhaust it. 

The pretense that the Bible must be interpreted grammatically and Hebraically, without scientific aids, is an implicit 

denial of its divine inspiration, and is one of those self-destructive claims which a blind faith is ever setting up against 

the demands of common sense. If the Bible is a purely human production, then we must seek its meaning by the literal 

interpretation of its language. We have no right to seek for anything beyond that which is actually expressed. If the 

Bible is the expression of an infinite mind, through finite, fallible, and often unconscious human agents, it is certain 

that the literal phrase can seldom rise to the full idea which it adumbrates. There is always something beyond — an 

infinite something beyond—which the language but faintly shadows forth, or fails totally to reach. This something 

beyond —this test and prerogative of inspiration—is in the realm of universal and eternal truth; and there is nothing 

which can bring us into apprehensible relations to this which eludes verbal expression, except attainable related truth. 

Whatever aids, therefore, bring us into possession of truths correlated to those expressed, or faintly shadowed, or 

sublimely subsumed in the text of the divine revelation, it is not only legitimate but our bounden duty to summon. The 

more devotedly we hold to the inspiration of the Bible, the more devoutly shall we recognize the atmosphere of 

thoughts which transcended all power of expression in the language of a rude age, and the more gladly shall we seek 

to rise to the highest summits of modern thought, for the purpose of catching glimpses of the divine light which had 

not risen on the Hebrew mind. 

If the coordinate relations of secular and revealed learning are not yet duly appreciated, they certainly had not been 

discovered in the age of Peyrerius. His general position was denounced as heretical; and the poor victim of a 

consciousness of inherent intellectual liberty was well-nigh submerged by a torrent of ecclesiastical choler. 

Denunciation, malediction, ridicule and defamation,— these were the unanswerable arguments which the "defenders of 

the faith" employed to forestall conviction awakened by sober and rational argument. They succeeded, as they had 

habitually succeeded. '.'.Pars secunda" of the Theological System never followed pars prima; and the work of honest 

Peyrerius was left to be remembered and mentioned only as the impious madness of one of the enemies of religion. 

Peyrerius, nevertheless, was less impious and mad than the bond slaves of dogma who silenced his tongue. His 

sagacity surpassed his age; and I have come, not to bury, but to honor him. His thesis was argued with soberness, 

candor and logic; and the slender secular evidence with which the state of contemporary learning enabled him to 

fortify his exegesis was pertinent and legitimate. I conclude this notice of him by presenting concisely a statement of 

the principal points made in his works.* 

1. The "one man" (Romans v, 12) by whom "sin entered into the world was Adam"; for in verse 14 that sin is called 

"Adam's transgression." 

2. "Transgression" is a violation of "law"; therefore "the law" (verse 13) signifies the law given to Adam,— natural 

law, not that given to Moses. 

3. The phrase "until the law " (verse 13) implies a time before the law,— that is, before Adam; and as "sin was in the 

world" during that time, there must have been men in existence to commit sin. 

4. The sin committed before the enactment of the natural law was "material," "actual"; the sin existing after Adam, and 

through him, was "imputed," "formal," "legal," "adventitious," and "after the similitude of Adam's transgression."

5. Death entered into the world before Adam, but it was in consequence of the imputation "backwards" of Adam's 

prospective sin; f and this was necessary, that all men might partake of the salvation provided in Christ. \ Nevertheless, 

death before Adam did not "reign." § 

6. Adam was the "first man" only in the same 

* See McClintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia, art. "Preadamites." 

f'Peccatum Adami fuisse retro imputatum primis hominibus. ante Adamum conditis." 

|" Oportuerat primos illos homines peccavisse in Adamo, ut sanctificarenlur in Christo."— Prceadamitoe, cap. xix. 

§"Peccatum tunc temporis erat mortuum; mors mortua, et nullus erat sepulchri aculeus." —Ibid., cap. xii. 

sense as Christ was the "second man"; for Adam "was the figure of Christ." (Romans v, 14). 

7. All men are "of one blood," in the sense of one substance — one "matter," one "earth."* The Jews are descended 

from Adam; the Gentiles from Preadamites.f The first chapter of Genesis treats of the origin of the Gentiles; the 

second, of the origin of the Jews.^: The Gentiles were created aborigines, "in the beginning," by the "word" of God, in 

all lands; Adam, the father of the Jews, was formed of "clay," by the "hand" of God.§ Genesis, after the first chapter, 

is a history, not of the first men, but of the first Jews. || 

8. The existence of Preadamites is also indicated in the biblical account of Adam's family, especially of Cain.** 

9. Proved, also, by the "monuments" of Egypt and Chaldaea, and by the history of the astronomy, astrology, theology 

and magic of the Gentiles, ff as well as by the racial features of remote and savage tribes, and by the "recently 

discovered parts of the terrestrial structure." \\ 

10. Hence the epoch of the creation of the world 

* We can now add that all men are " of one blood" physiologically and structurally and chemically; for among all the 

races of men the blood presents the same assemblage of characters. Moreover, we are able to assert that all men are of 

one blood genetically; so that whatever the thought intended to be expressed, the doctrine of Preadamitism does not 

collide with it. 

f S'jstema Theologicum, lib. ii, cap. vi-xi. 

X Ibid., lib. iii, cap. i, ii. 

§ Ibid., lib. ii, cap. xi. 

1 Ibid., lib. iv, cap. ii.

** Ibid., lib. ii, cap. iv. 

iff Ibid., lib. iii, cap. v-xi. 

H Ibid., Prooemium. 

does not date from that beginning commonly figured in Adam.* 

11. The deluge of Noah was not universal, and it destroyed only the Jews; f nor is it possible to trace to Noah the 

origins of all the races of men. \ 

Peyrerius seems to have reached sound conclusions by a species of intuition; for it is not true that all these points are 

adequately defended from a secular position; nor was it possible, at that date, to give them such defense. The reader 

will be surprised, with me, that the brief summary above given directs attention to so many of the considerations which 

have been employed in the present work. The positions which, in the time of Peyrerius, were regarded as unscriptural, 

but which I am now prepared to defend on scriptural as well as scientific grounds, and which, moreover, are mostly 

accepted by the modern church, may be usefully summarized as follows: 

1. The existence of Preadamites, who lived under the reign of natural law. 

2. The unity of mankind is expressed in the identity of their organization, and in their common psychic nature, instead 

of their common descent from Adam. 

3. The biblical history of Adam's family implies Preadamites. 

4. The existence of Preadamites is proved by the monuments of Egypt and Chaldaea. 

5. It is proved by the developments of geology, biology and other physical sciences. 

6. It is proved by the great racial divergences which exist among men. 

*"Videtur enim altius et a longissime retroactis seculis petendum illud principium." (Ibid., Proosm.) t Ibid., lib. iv, cap. 

vii-ix. %Ibid., lib. iv, cap. xiv. 

7. The world's commencement dates back to very remote ages before Adam. 

8. The deluge of Noah was restricted to the regions then occupied by the Jews. 

The doctrine of Preadamites, so far as I have learned, passed into disesteem, and was only mentioned as a curious relic 

of opinion, until the bright glare of recent science forced attention to the crudities and impossibilities of the traditional

elief. Preadamitism was maintained by Bory de St. Vincent and by Hombron. Mr. W. F. Van Amringe took up the 

defense of Preadamites in a work entitled Outline of a New Natural History of Manfdunded upon Human Analogies, 

New York, 1848. Speaking of the incompleteness and obscurity of the Mosaic account of the creation of man, he asks, 

"Whence came Cain's fear that some one, finding him, should slay him, if the only persons living at the death of Abel 

were Adam, Eve and himself? And why the reply of the Lord that 'whosoever slayeth Cain, vengeance shall be taken 

on him seven-fold'? And whence the necessity of putting a mark on him? Surely, his father and mother and their 

descendants would not have killed him! The departure of Cain, his marriage, the birth of his son Enoch, and his 

building of a city, took place before the birth of Seth, the next human being, according to Moses. The intermarriage of 

the 'sons of God' with the 'daughters of men' was the cause of the wickedness punished by the Flood. There were also 

'giants in the earth in those days,' who cannot be referred to Cain as their progenitor, because four generations from 

Cain are mentioned among whom there were no giants; and these are sufficient to cover the whole intermediate time" 

to the Epoch of the Flood (page 57). All these circumstances point to a race of men independent of Adam. Even 

though all the descendants of Adam, except Noah and his family, had perished in the Flood, there may have been other 

men, in parts of the earth not reached by the Noachian deluge, who escaped.* 

The question of Preadamites arrested the attention of Sir David Brewster. "It is possible," he says, "that Preadamite 

races may have inhabited the earth simultaneously with the animals which characterize its different formations. But, 

though possible, and to a certain extent available as the basis of an argument against a startling theory, we do not 

admit its probability. Man, as now constituted, could not have lived amid the storms and earthquakes and eruptions of 

a world in the act of formation." {More Worlds than One, page 65). The objection is based on a condition of tilings 

which terminated long before the Epoch of Adam. 

The most important work hitherto published on this subject appeared anonymously in 1857, in Edinburgh, under the 

title of "The Genesis of the Earth and of Man," with an introduction and an endorsement by the distinguished 

Egyptologist and chronologist Reginald Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, f This work is written with a reverent 

recognition of the authority of Sacred Scripture, but seeks to attain the 

* S. Kneeland, Jr., in Hamilton Smith's Natural History of the Human Species, p. 72. 

t The Genesis of the Earth and of Man; or, the History of Creation and the Antiquity and Races of Mankind, 

considered on biblical and other grounds, edited by Reginald Stuart Poole, M.R.S.L., etc., of the British Museum. 

Second edition, revised and enlarged. London and Edinburgh, 1860. 

This is the work referred to in chapter xii. It has been received, after considerable research, since that chapter went into 

the printer's bands. 

original, and even the primitive, meaning of the terms of Scripture. At the same time it recognizes manfully all the 

exigencies created by the advance of modern science, and discovers in a corrected interpretation of certain portions of 

Genesis a means of maintaining complete harmony between Genesis and science, and effecting, indeed, a more literal 

construction of the Sacred Text. Unhappily, however, the work is written in a lumbering eighteenth-century style, 

encumbered with parentheses, and weighed down with dependent clauses and piled-up and incongruous adjuncts 

which create obscurities and weariness in the reading. 

After the first chapter, which is devoted to "The Genesis of the Earth," the author takes up "The Genesis of Man." He 

examines first the apparent indications in the Bible that all mankind originated from a single pair, and then discusses 

those passages which seem to be incompatible with such an understanding. He concludes that Scripture teaches the 

existence of men before Adam, and that Adam was only "the first individual of a new variety of a species which had 

universally sinned, but not become extinct" (page 46). This new variety, however, he holds to have been miraculously

introduced. Thus mankind are derived from two distinct origins. 

It is from this portion of the work that I have quoted in chapter xii. The author, as there indicated, considers the 

expression, "the sons of God," to refer to nonadamites; but, as the plural is employed, he thinks it means "the sons of 

the gods "—the devotees of polytheistic heathenism. I venture to renew my suggestion of a different conception. The 

plural Elohim is elsewhere, in the early part of Genesis, admitted to signify "God" as recognized by the Hebrews, and 

it seems most likely to demand the same rendering in this place. The nonadamites are therefore styled the "sons of 

God" simply because no other genealogy was known. The passage, accordingly, in Job i, 6, and ii, 1, may be thus 

paraphrased: "There was a day when the nonadamites came to oppose themselves to the Lord [of the Hebrews], and 

Satan aided them." It was an attack of heathenism against Hebrew monotheism. 

The author shows in this chapter special familiarity with Semitic languages, and by numerous citations from the Bible 

succeeds in presenting a strong and just case. The chapter may be specially commended to exegetical students. 

Incidentally the geographical limitation of the Noachian deluge is asserted and maintained on scriptural ground. It was 

a Mesopotamian event, intended for the destruction of Adamites, but not including the posterity of Cain, or of the 

daughters of the Adamites who intermarried with the nonadamic "sons of God." 

The author next proceeds to "physical observations." After discussing the phenomena of geographical distribution of 

lower animals and of man, and the results of racial intermixtures, he points out the archaeological and historical proofs 

of the early differentiation of race-types, and concludes that the economy of Nature implies a succession of human 

varieties proceeding from the lowest to the highest. He holds that the production of the lower types from the rank of 

Adam would never take place in any length of time (page 109); that the production of Adam's type from the lowest 

would require too much time for belief, and that therefore we have the presumption that Adam was created the 

representative of a new race. He thinks the Negro is the primitive variety of the human species (page 122); that he 

appeared in the upper valley of the Nile and spread thence all over Africa and Asia (page 161); that the Hottentots, on 

the one hand, and the Chinese on the other, are the temperate-zone derivatives of the Negro, while other Mongolians 

descended from the Chinese, and the Malays from a mixture of Mongolians and Nigritians. The Negro, probably, 

appeared first in a single pair or two, brought into being by a special creation, as the Adamic pair were long afterward 

created to stand at the head of the Mediterranean race. 

In a chapter of "chronological observations," it is maintained that geological indications establish a high antiquity for 

European man. This position I have contested in chapter xxvii. Geologists and anthropologists, since 1860, have 

reached, with great unanimity, a more moderate estimate of the significance of the flint-bearing gravels of the Somme, 

and the bone-enclosing lavas of central France. It seems probable that the author himself would now concur in the 

general verdict. But this result, as I have argued, does not establish the low antiquity of primeval man. 

As to biblical chronology, the author prefers that of the Septuagint, as affording the least possible time compatible with 

the facts of ethnology — even assuming Adam a special origination. The numbers in Genesis, on which chronology is 

based, were purposely altered, he says, by the later Jews, and probably also by the earlier, if not first inserted by them 

(page 146-7).* Egypt was settled long anterior to the 

* Compare the similar statement in the article on " Preadamites," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, and the 

editor's brusque contradiction. Hebrew date of the Deluge; and the Septuagint, though quite uncertain, barely allows 

the length of time demanded by the facts of history and ethnology. 

Under the head of "historical observations," he asserts that the Egyptians possessed a considerable admixture of Negro 

blood; and in proof cites the tumid lips and languid eyes, as well as the complexion. He claims for them, also, a scanty 

beard, and hair "extremely crisp" (!) He opposes these conclusions to the evidence not only of iconographs, but of

mummies, since "many of these are Greek and Roman, or from far remote countries whence the Romans drew their 

foreign legions, or from Asia or Ethiopia" (page 169). These pretensions are certainly indefensible. Other evidences of 

Negro admixture he finds in the religion of the Egyptians, instancing various grades of superstition, ranging from 

fetichism through animal worship and Shamanism, and also the doctrine of metempsychosis. All these superstitions he 

considers mingled with the reception of truths derived from a primitive revelation to the ancestors of the Egyptians. 

But when we ascertain what truths are regarded thus the product of revelation, we find they constitute only that body of 

religious ideas and conceptions which have been shown to be the common inheritance of humanity. Further evidence 

of Negro admixture he discovers in the Egyptian language. Now, while we need not deny such a degree of admixture 

as history and ethnology have always displayed along the boundaries of coterminous races, it must be denied that the 

author has established such a racial interfusion as he has deemed essential to sustain his assumption of an African 

primordiality for humanity. 

A similar infusion of Negro blood is thought to be manifest in the races of India, whose primitive inhabitants are 

alleged to have been Negroid, with dialects of the Turanian stock (page 188). 

As to philology, he holds that the Egyptian language was formed partly of Semitic elements and partly of Hamitic, and 

that among the latter were Nigritian elements. The Japhetic or Iranian stock is deduced from Turanian, which, like the 

Nigritian, descended from some monosyllabic stem. As to the origin of the Semitic, he affirms that it was not derived 

directly nor mediately "from a rude primeval form of speech" (page 207); but that, clearly, it was originated by Adam 

and Eve, or else communicated by revelation (pp. 244, 268). In assuming these positions, he makes issue with Bunsen 

and Max Miiller, whose opinions as to the derivation of European and Asiatic languages from one stock have been 

sustained by philological researches of later date than the work under notice. Common primitive elements in the 

Egyptian, Semitic and Hamitic languages should be expected from the common origin of the Noachian languages from 

an antediluvian Adamic form of speech, based on the Preadamic Turanian. Hence a primitive Assyro-Babylonian 

Accadian which, while it was the predecessor of the widespread Hamitic type, retained Turanian reminiscences. Hence 

the linguistic cousinship of the Semitic and Hamitic forms of speech, whether as developed in Mesopotamia, Canaan, 

Egypt or Ethiopia. 

The work, while fundamentally sound, is pervaded by some serious misconceptions and errors, which lead the author, 

especially in the philological chapter, into strained and complicated adjustments of facts. The central error consists in 

the purely gratuitous assumption that the Negro was the primitive type of humanity, and was dispersed over the world 

from the upper valley of the Nile. Accessory to this is the assumption of substantial identity of race between the 

Negroes and the black-skinned tribes of south Africa, Australia, Tasmania, Papua and the Philippines; as also the 

assumptions of mixed race, mixed religion and mixed language for the Egyptians, a miraculous communication of the 

Semitic parent language to Adam, and the non-recognition of an Asiatic Ethiopia. 

Mr. Poole, in his introduction to the work, gives the author's positions a general endorsement. Among particulars 

enumerated for approval, besides the central doctrine of Preadamitism, is the ascription to a primitive revelation of the 

higher doctrines of the Egyptian religion (p. ix); the demand for a remoter origin of our species than Hebrew 

chronology allows (p. xvi); the high antiquity of European man (p. xvii); the assertion of two independent origins of 

mankind, and two primitive sources of human language (p. xviii); the recognition of the mingling of the streams from 

these sources in the Egyptian language (p. xx), and finally, a deprecation of "dogmatism or flippancy" in dealing with 

the questions raised. 

A writer in the Evangelical Quarterly Review, in. 1866, takes up the subject of Preadamites; and another, in October, 

1871, in Scribner's Monthly, writes in answer to the question "Was Adam the First Man?" The article is based on the 

work next mentioned. 

A work of much interest, written in pleasing style, and one which has elicited some critical comment, is thus entitled:

Adam and the Adamite; or, the Harmony of Scripture and Ethnology. By Dominick M'Causland, Q.C., LL.D. Third 

edition, London, 1872, 12mo, pp. 328. Dr. M'Causland maintains the general thesis of Preadamitism. He holds that the 

inferior races possess a higher antiquity than the superior races, and that a racial degeneracy from the superior race 

would not be in accordance with the lessons of history, or the observations of science. He denies, however, all 

derivative relation between the races, and defends, accordingly, the doctrine, now generally abandoned, of distinct 

human origins, each taking place through a distinct creative act. He rejects, therefore, the theory of the derivative 

origin of mankind, and pronounces the doctrine of evolution in general to be unsound. From Adam and Noah, in 

accordance with the general tenor of vital phenomena, an upward tendency has been generally experienced. It is his 

idiosyncrasy to maintain that the shepherd kings of Egypt and their people emigrated to western America.* Another 

opinion, not new, but equally lacking in evidential support, represents Cain as imparting the germs of a civilization to 

the Chinese among whom he settled, f This theory, as I have already shown, is quite in accordance with all our 

knowledge, though it cannot be said that we have any direct proof in its support. I have already stated that the author 

of Tlie Negro holds the Mongoloids to be a hybrid or mulatto race resulting from the union of Cain with the negresses 

of central Asia. Finally, it is maintained by M'Causland, with much reason, that the deluge of Noah was especially a 

Hebrew phenomenon, instead of a universally destructive cataclysm. In his later work, The Builders of Babel, 

(London, 1871, 12mo, pp. 339,) the last chapter is devoted to The Adamite, in which similar views are summarized. 

*See quotation and criticism, p. 385. 

t Op. cit., pp. 196-198, 2615. This opinion is indicated by the author of Genesis of the Earth and of Man. 

Dr. D. D. Whedon, in reviewing this work, seems to incline toward M'Causland's general position, though suggesting a 

more eligible means of meeting some supposed scriptural difficulties.* He seems to be urged toward the admission of 

Preadamites by the pressure of the evidence, then felt, toward a conviction of the high antiquity of the human species. 

In a later critical notice, referring to this one, he says: ''We expressed the opinion that if science compelled the 

concession of the immense antiquity of man, his [M'Causland's] theory was preferable to any other view, inasmuch as, 

unlike all others, it only required a different interpretation of certain texts, but no violation of the text itself. . . . Since 

our expressing this view, however, the argument for man's geological antiquity has weakened rather than 

strengthened." f \ 

As to the tenability of the ground on which assent is partially withdrawn from the theory of Preadam- itism, it is good 

in the sense intended, but bad in the sense which the language expresses. The discussion on human antiquity, to which 

Dr. Whedon alludes, and of which he had become wearied, refers to the Epoch of the Stone Folk of Europe. I have 

already given my reasons \ for denying their high antiquity. But this does not concern the antiquity of the first men; 

and, therefore, it does not relieve the pressure for time which brought Dr. Whedon to the awful brink of Preadamitism. 

In a still later review he seems willing to yield when the evidence becomes a little more urgent. "Why not accept, if 

need be," he asks, "the Preadamic man? If Dr. Dawson admits an Adamic center of creation, why not admit, 

* See Dr. Whedon's comments cited on p. 286. 


X See chapter xxvii of the present work. 

if pressed, other centers of human origin? The record does not seem to deny other centers in narrating the history of 

this center."* This is all true; but we have a more comfortable way of reaching this admission. It suits the facts better 

to assume one original center of human origin, and one Edenic center, to which man arrived by continuity, and not by

a new creation; and this assumption, it seems to me, fits much better the other exigencies of the Sacred Text. Finally, 

in concluding a critical notice of the present writer's little work entitled Adamites and Preadamites, Dr. Whedon — as 

if in mockery of our serious efforts to convince him — closes the door on us with this terse decision: "On the whole, 

we do not yet quite accept the Preadamite!" f I am sure the Doctor will extend a hand to him as soon as convinced he 

is not a phantom. 

Dr. J. P. Thompson, in his work entitled Man in Genesis and Geology (New York, 1875, 12mo, pp. 149), after 

referring to the typical character of Seth, Noah and Abraham, continues: "Now, some would apply this obvious 

principle of selection in the early biblical history to the case of Adam, and regard him, not as strictly the first man 

created, and the sole progenitor of the human race, but the first called to a representative position as the Son of God, 

and the head of a new type of humanity. . . . Some plausible arguments are urged for this opinion. . . . Such is the 

theory; and although open to some serious objections, it serves to show one possible way in which the Bible and 

Science may yet be harmonized upon 

* Whedon, in Methodist Quarterly Review, April 1878, p. 369. 


the question of the antiquity of man and the unity of the race." * 

The positions assumed in the work here brought to a conclusion may be summarized as follows: 

1. The Biblical Adam was a representative of the Mediterranean race, and was simply the remotest ancestor to whom 

the Jews could trace their descent. 

2. The Bible itself clearly implies the existence of nonadamites. 

3. Races remote from Palestine in Genesiacal times could not have descended from the Noachite stock, because the 

dispersion of the Noachites existing in Genesiacal times extended over only a very limited area. 

4. The lower races could not have descended from the Mediterranean stock, because 

(1) A vast diversification of races now exists. 

(2) Some of these races are greatly inferior to the 

Mediterranean. 

(3) A complete differentiation of races existed in 

the early dynastic periods of Egypt.

(4) And the chronological position of Noah, or 

even of Adam, is far too recent to suppose the differentiation began at the Noachic, or even the Adamic Era. 

(5) And further, the theory of the Hamitic origin 

of the Negroes is opposed by the Bible itself. 

(6) Finally, the supposition of a universal degen 

eracy of all human races is scientifically inadmissible. 

5. The doctrine of Preadamitism is entirely consonant with all the fundamental principles of Biblical Christianity. 

* J. P. Thompson, op. cit., pp. 106-7. 

The conclusions of the strictly scientific discussion in the sequel may be thus stated: 

1. A chain of profound relationship runs through the constitution of all the races, and they may be regarded as 

genealogically connected together. 

2. The initial point of the genealogical line may be located in Lemuria. 

3. An early and profound split in the primitive stock is represented by the prognathous, wooly-haired, or African types, 

and the mesognathous, straight and curly-haired, or austro-oriental types. 

4. The African stock entered the continent somewhat north of the equator, and dispersed thence southward and 

westward. 

5. The smooth-haired stock sent one divarication toward Australia, and another toward central Asia. From the latter 

have proceeded all the Mongoloids, in due succession; and from the former the Dravidians. 

6. The Adamites are an offshoot from the Dravidians, and showed, at first, a closer approximation to the older type 

than is preserved in the Mediterranean race at present. 

7. An early branch of the Mongoloid stock turned westward, and occupied northern Africa, Atlantis and the greater 

part of Europe, in times anterior to the Kelts or the Pelasgians. 

8. The first men were geologically preglacial, and their antiquity is comparatively great. It may reach a hundred 

thousand years. Prehistoric Europeans, so far as inductively known, were postglacial, and their antiquity cannot be 

carried, on archaeological and ethnological grounds, beyond 5000 or 6000 B.c.

9. America was populated by two streams of Old World Mongoloids. One of these entered by the northwest, and 

produced the peoples of the "mounds" and of the civilizations of Mexico and Peru; the other entered by Polynesia, and 

is represented by the warlike and ever-encroaching Indians of the hunting tribes. 

The investigations thus summarized flow by a natural and interesting sequence from the doctrine of Preadamitism; but 

it must be distinctly borne in mind that the truth of this doctrine does not depend, to any extent, on the establishment 

of the ethnological conclusions to which it has pointed the way.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Frontispiece: Preadamites. 

Australian. 

Papuan. Wallace, Malay Archipelago. 

Hottentot. Nott and Gliddon, Indigenous Races of the Earth. 

Negro. 

Eskimo. Photograph of Greenlander, by Dr. E. Bessels. Mongoloid. Photograph of a Pekingese gentleman. Obtained in 

Peking by Prof. M. W. Harrington. Dravidian. ALurkaKohl. Photograph from Watson and Kaye's The People of India. 

Chart of Dispersions of the Noachites, according to Genesis . 51 Chart showing Comparative Area of the Genesiacal 

Nations . 88 Chart of the Dispersion of Races over the Earth . At the end. 

Fig. 1. A Tamulian Dravidian. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal ......... 55 

Fig. 2. A Malay Gentleman. Photograph obtained by Prof. J. B. Steere, in Manila, Luzon .58 

Fig. 3. Leleiohoku — brother of King Kalakaua. Photograph from Rev. S. E. Bishop, Honolulu 59 

Fig. 4. A Muttuk Man. Thai type of Malayo-Chinese. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal 

Fig. 5. A Fuchow Official (Taotsi). Photograph obtained by Prof. M.W. Harrington 61 

Fig. 6. A Japanese Swordsman. Photograph obtained by Prof. M. W. Harrington 62 

Fig. 7. An Aged. Afno of Yezo. Photograph obtained by Prof. M. W. Harrington 63 

Fig. 8. A Greenland Eskimo. Photograph obtained by Dr. E. Bessels 

Fig. 9. Red Cloud, Chief of Ogalala Sioux. Photograph by W. H. Jackson 66 

Fig. 10. George Tsaroff, native of Unalashka. Photograph . 67 

Fig. 11. Venus Kallipygos of the Bushmen. Sketch from model in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris 72 

Fig. 12. Australian of King George's Sound. D'Urville's Atlas. [This is not a typical Australian.] .... 73

Fig. 13. Tomboua Nakoro. A Papuan of Fiji. Pritchard, Natural History of Man ....... 75 

Fig. 14. One of the Aeta, from near Manila, Luzon. Photograph obtained by Prof. J. B. Steere .... 78 

Fig. 15. Nubians and Negroes, driven before the chariot of Bameses II. From a reduction by Cherubini ... 97 

Fig. 16. Brachycephalic Cranium, from Tartary. Huxley . 165 

Fig. 17. Mesocephalic Cranium (Mediterranean Race) . . 165 

Fig. 18. Dolichocephalic Cranium, from New Zealand (perhaps Australian). Huxley 165 

Fig. 19. A Common Hawaiian Woman, very characteristic. Photograph from Rev. 8. E. Bishop, Honolulu . . . 173 

Fig. 20. Outline of the Muzzle of the Polynesian . . . 174 

Fig. 21. Outline of the Muzzle of the Negro .... 174 

Fig. 22. A Fair Preadamite of the Chinese Family. Photograph from D. Sewell, Sonora, California . 

Fig. 23. Rot, or Egyptian (red) 1 The Four Races 

Fig. 24. Namahu, or Semitic (yellow) of Men known 

Fig. 25. Nahsu, or Negro (black) to the Egyp- 

Fig. 26. Tamahu, or Mediterranean (white) J tians 

Fig. 27. Aryan Portrait from the reign of Rameses II 

Fig. 28. Portrait of a Himyarite Arab, 1500 B.C. 

Fig. 29. Portrait of a (Kurdish?) Asiatic, 1300 B.C. 

Fig. 30. Portrait of a Hindu, 1600 B.C. 

Fig. 31. Portrait of a Mongoloid, 1400 B.< 

Fig. 32. Amunoph II, 1727 B.C. 

Fig. 33. Mother of Amunoph II . 

Fig. 34. A Female Mourner . 

Fig. 35. An Ancient Egyptian Lady with dressed hair 198 

Fig. 36. Merhet, Prince and Priest, 3400 B.C. 205 

Fig. 37. Portrait of a Negro, 1300 B.C. 205

Fig. 38. Negro Prisoner 206 

Fig. 39. Negro Prisoner 206 

Fig. 40. Captive Negress, 1550 B.C. 206 

Fig. 41. Skeleton of an Adamite 248 

Fig. 42. Skeleton of a Chimpanzee 248 

Fig. 43. Profile of Brain of Orang-Outang. Vogt . . .249 

Fig. 44. Profile of Brain of Bushman Venus. Gratiolet . 250 

Fig. 45. Profile of Brain of Gauss, the Mathematician. Vogt 250 

Fig. 46. Female Hottentot. Haeckel 253 

Fig. 47. Female Gorilla. Haeckel 253 

Fig. 48. Kanoa, Governor of Kauai, S. I. Photograph from Miss Luella Andrews, late of Honolulu .... 316 

Fig. 49. Hon. Mrs. Dominis, Sister of the King of the S. I. Photograph from Miss Luella Andrews, of Elmira, New 

York 318 

Fig. 50. One of the Lepcha, Aboriginal of Sikhim. Premon- goloid type. From Watson & Kaye's Photographs . . 319 

Fig. 51. Portrait of Okubo, a Native Japanese. Photograph . 324 

Fig. 52. Hupa Woman of California. After Powers, in Powell's Contributions to North American Ethnology . . . 331 

Fig. 53. Spotted Tail, Chief of Brul6 Sioux. Photograph by W. H. Jackson 332 

Fig. 54. Numpayu, a Moqui Maiden. Photograph by W. H. Jackson 334 

Fig. 55. A Mut-sun Woman of Tuolumne county, California. Photograph from Daniel Sewell, Sonora, California . . 

335 

Fig. 56. A Quichua Indian of Peru. Photograph obtained at Lima, by Prof. J. B. Steere 336 

Fig. 57. A Dravidian of the Toda Tribe, Nilghiri Hills in southern India. Supposed descended from the near ancestry of 

Adam. Color of skin burnt sienna. From Pritchard, Natural History of Man 349 

EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF THE PROGRESSIVE DISPERSION OF MANKIND.

This chart is, First, An accurate representation of the distribution of land and water over the surface of the earth. The 

geography of Africa is from the last edition of Stieler's Hand Atlas, and includes the discoveries of Stanley, and other 

late explorers. Some parts of Polynesia are supplied from Colton's Atlas of the World. The marine contour lines are 

taken from the chart in Wallace's Geographical Distribution of Animals. This portion of the chart is printed in blue ink. 

Second, It is a carefully compiled Ethnographic Chart. The basis of this is Kracher's Ethnographische Welt-Karte, in 

F. Miiller's Report on the Ethnology of the Novara Expedition, Wien, 1875. But this has been found inaccurate in 

many respects, and defective in others, and many improvements have been introduced from Peschel's Races of Man, 

Stieler's Hand Atlas (for Africa), Von Richthofen's China, W. H. Dall's Alaska and its Resources and Tribes of the 

Northwest, in Powell's Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. I; George Gibb's Tribes of Western 

Washington and Northwestern Oregon, in the same; Stephen Powers' Tribes of California, in Vol. III of the same, and 

H. Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific States. This part of the chart is in black ink, with typographical 

discrimination between important and comparatively unimportant ethnic groups. 

Third, it is an elaborately studied chart of Ethnic Migrations, not based on any other attempt of the kind. It is prepared 

from a large number of accessible sources of information. The classes of data which have guided in laying down the 

lines are, 1. Knowledge of migrations, either historical or traditional; 2. Inferences of migrations, based on ethnic and 

linguistic affinities; 3. Inferences based on analogies in the distribution of lower animals and plants; 4. Confirmations 

of such inferences deduced from the geological evidences of different distributions of land and water in prehistoric 

times. 

Memorandum. The indications of this chart vary from those of the Ethnographic Table on pages 302-306, in tracing 

the Vagantes or Hunting Tribes of America to Polynesian Mongoloids, and in making the Brown races Preadamic. It 

varies in some minor particulars from the Genealogical Table on pages 352 and 353. These deviations are intended to 

exemplify the allowable differences of opinion under the general doctrine of Preadamitism.

PREADAMITES; - Bennie Blount Ministries

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