Abstract
Similarity Music, as a reflection of the world, is like this and different from it: It is similar. Reality is depicted in specific material, and thus reproduced, reshaped and transformed into an artistic form. We have to mind the gap between signifier and signified, as between the realm of matter and the realm of ideas – the map is not the territory. Fuzziness is the gap, the difference between reflection and the reflected. This chapter uses the classical aesthetic terms mimesis and poiesis to analyze the artistic approach to the world. To this end, the working with iconic and symbolic signs, with material such as real sounds, ready-mades, numbers, geometric elements and with intertextuality (music, texts and pictures) is analyzed together with the interactions between different components. On the basis of this, and again including the B-A-C-H motif, I discuss how fuzzy logic and musical analysis complete each other in recognizing the various phenomena and dimensions of similarity in the artwork.
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Notes
- 1.
For differentiations and complications, see Wickler 1973.
- 2.
- 3.
In detail and with numerous aspects, see Didi-Hubermann 1999.
- 4.
Text quoted from https://ia802609.us.archive.org/6/items/conclsylviebruno00carrrich/conclsylviebruno00carrrich.pdf, retrieved 3.3.2019. Emphasis by H.-W.H.
- 5.
See https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karte_im_Ma%C3%9Fstab_1:1, 19.12.16, retrieved 7.8.18.
- 6.
See e.g. Seneta 1984 and 1993: Of “a few key problems and their solutions from the 13 probability problems” “some are badly posed with imaginative but incorrect solutions; other are difficult, interesting and with correct solution.” See e.g. Seneta 1984—Further see: Vakhania 2009, http://science.org.ge/old/moambe/3-3/Vakhania.pdf; with relation to Carroll’s “Wonderland” sub “Scienceland”.
- 7.
See e.g. Bonini’s paradox, simplified: „simpler maps are less accurate though more useful representations of the territory.“ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map%E2%80%93territory_relation, 1 July 2018, retrieved 7.8.2018. More generally Korzybski [1933], e.g. Book I: A General Survey of Non-aristotelian Factors, Book II: A General Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics; against exaggerations and with connections to a central problem of Fuzzy Logic e.g. Wit 2012.
- 8.
https://www.kwf.org/pages/ww-der-protagonist.html, retrieved 8.3.2019.
- 9.
Plato, as reported by Peter Möller, Berlin. http://www.philolex.de/platon.htm (call 13.1.14).
- 10.
Holz, H. H.: Einheit und Widerspruch. Über Theorie und Erscheinung der Dialektik. Vorabdruck. In: junge welt, Berlin, 18 January 2017, p. 12f.; quotation p. 12. In detail see: Holz 2017.
- 11.
Ibidem.
- 12.
See e.g. Dubnov et al. 2002.
- 13.
For searching stylistic similarities and patterns in arts and architecture, cf. e.g. Sondereguer 2010; for filtering similarities of words, in different dimensions („Wortähnlichkeiten“), from a corpus for scopes of psychological-linguistical research, e.g. Heister/Polk 2010, p. 13.
- 14.
Analogy, in opposition to ‚homology‘, refers in biology to adaptive similarities of shape and equality of functions of organs, which are of different evolutionary origin, like for instance, gills and lungs, and the wings of insects and bats.
- 15.
Sandkühler 1990, p. 101f.
- 16.
Sandkühler 1990, p. 102. For Kant (Prolegomena,1783), such a kind of analogy is not an „incomplete similarity of two objects, but a totally completed similarity of two relations between totally dissimilar objects“ (quoted after ibidem, p. 104).
- 17.
However, the application of natural processes, directly on the development of life in society, by social Darwinists is questionable.
- 18.
For utilization in the context of Fuzzy Logic, compare Kacprzyk et al. 2017.
- 19.
Demers 2010, p. 171.
- 20.
Ibid.
- 21.
http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/hbook/foster.htm, retrieved 01 Febr. 2019. Emphasis H.-W.H.
- 22.
Dolscheid et al. 2013.
- 23.
Ibidem.
- 24.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pines_of_Rome, 8.3.19, retrieved 14.3.19.
- 25.
A standard example is “bird-likeness”. From the human point of view, in particular, the robin—is a «prototype» (Eleanor Rosch)—considerably more obvious, than a penguin, who is unfit to fly, although both are classificatorily birds. Subsequent graduations are again standard opportunities for the application of Fuzzy Logic; see e.g. Drösser 1994, p. 16f.
- 26.
On this, extensively, see Chr. Lehmann: Klassifikation, undated.
- 27.
So Chr. Lehmann: Klassifikation, undated.
- 28.
Blakolmer 2010, n.p.
- 29.
Ibidem.
- 30.
Possibly, it could be more deeply clarified, to what extent the methods of Fuzzy Logic might deal with such questions better than conventional statistical methods. Eventually, this has to be dealt with by Fuzzy Logic itself.
- 31.
In this context, analogy describes „a cognitive procedure, which draws analogous conclusions as a methodological aid for discovering the unknown from the known.“ Sandkühler 1990, p. 102.
- 32.
As reported by Kanitscheider 2002, p. 96.
- 33.
Extensively, for instance, in Kandel 2012. Both as a result of the common, evolutionarily embodied inclination to perceive relations of similarity, and also particularly, as a result of the importance of faces, we often see faces as projections in clouds, being a central phenomenon of ‚shapes‘ as such, or also some other features, mainly animals or plants, thus something vivid.
- 34.
- 35.
Hilmar Heister 2015, p. 38f.—In a psycho-analytical setting this corresponds to the analyst‘s problem to admit and contain the transferences from the analysand, while he admits and also reflects his own transferences, and for all empathy takes care, not to be inundated by respective affects, but to keep a specific coordinated balancing detachment.
- 36.
Verdi called a work‘s specific style and ‚colour‘ its „tinta musicale“, like a palette of colours for the work as such. It originates through a net-like combination of various factors, from text to instrumentation and manner of performance. For instance, in Macbeth of 1848, Lady Macbeth should sing in belcanto-voice, but in a „rough“, „choked“ voice, in order to express her character as well as her behaviour, along with the prevailing gloomy mood of the whole opera.
- 37.
Inauguration-Manifesto, 1. Dada-Evening Zurich, 14. July 1916, in: Ball 1991, p. 133.
- 38.
See Sect. 3.2.4.
- 39.
More extensively, above all, see Knepler 1977.
- 40.
For a pioneering work, see Tomatis 1990.
- 41.
Well-known examples are the prelude to the I. Act of The Knight of the Rose (Rosenkavalier) by Richard Strauss or Ravel‘s Bolero. Something more recent: “A collaboration album between Breakcore artists Venetian Snare and Hecate entitled Nymphomatriarch was composed entirely from sounds of the two performing various sexual activities together, which were distorted and time-stretched, to resemble typical Breakcore samples” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomusic 12.12.2013, retrieved 15.3.19).
- 42.
In the history of mankind, noises at work are a constant stimulation. Since the 1910s, futurism recorded the noises of workplaces, traffic and war in the industrial world directly, and integrated such noises within music—being up to the present a continuous developmental line.
- 43.
While deceiving by camouflage or mimicry—whether an animal or a plant—the thing-like material acts as sign or signal as such, though in case of animals it is a complimented and reinforced behavioural pseudo-characteristic of their species.
- 44.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pines_of_Rome, 8.3.19, retrieved 15.3.19. Such a procedure was in ethnology, music-ethnology and zoology, soon after the development of Edison‘s phonograph, in 1877, in popular use, as field recording, audio footage taken on location. Field recordings were originally used in sciences, but, already with Respighi, they became part of art, and, finally in post-modernism, even an independent genre of art, „a popular form of sound art“ Demers (2010, p. 170) is critical of the indentity-illusion, which is in connection with it: “Although any act of recording necessarily involves some editorial decisions on the part of the recordist, many field recordings also aspire toward an unmediated representation of reality“ (see Sect. 4.5).
- 45.
- 46.
See Chapter 5. Filtering, and the literature, which is indicated there.
- 47.
There are many examples in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomusic 12.12.2013, retrieved 12.8.14.
- 48.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missa_Gaia/Earth_Mass, 1.11.18, retrieved 15.3.19.
- 49.
http://www.paulwinter.com/projects/missa-gaia-earth-mass/, retrieved 15.3.19.
- 50.
https://www.evangelisch-beuel.de/wordpress/?p=1130, retrieved 15.3.19.
- 51.
Ibidem.
- 52.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomusic 12.12.2013, retrieved 12.8.14.
- 53.
Self-comment by Diego Stocco, Música con bonsai, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvyHHX6hNkY&feature=relmfu, retrieved 25.3.14.
- 54.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomusic 12.12.2013, retrieved 12.8.14.
- 55.
Extensively, with some further variants like the “pig‘s piano” (Piganino), see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat_organ, 27.10.15, retrieved 17.12.15.
- 56.
- 57.
It refers to industrial contexts: “By the end of the nineteenth century the term ‘ready-made’ was being used to describe objects that were manufactured as opposed to being handmade. By the end of the nineteenth century the term ‘ready-made’ was being used to describe objects that were manufactured as opposed to being handmade” (https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/r/readymade, retrieved 9.9.18).
- 58.
For some contexts see: Sound art, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/page/sound_art, retrieved 12.12.16.
- 59.
Extensively, among others, in: https://www.videomaker.com/article/7220-real-time-sound-effects-the-foley-way; http://web.archive.org/web/19970516041845/http://citd.scar.utoronto.ca/VPAB93/course/readings/prenderg.html; http://www.filmsound.org/game-audio/ An endless link-list is given in: http://www.filmsound.org/theory/, retrieved 10.3.19. An extensive alphabetical list with hints for the production of sounds is given in: David Filskov: The Guide To Sound Effects. Tips and ideas for making your own sound effects, https://www.epicsound.com/sfx/, retrieved 10.3.19; for instance, to horse hooves, besides the obligatory coconut halves “by beating two potatoes in a 3-beat rhythm in a pan, filled with sand, rice, and crushed crackers. Pitch adjusted to suit” or simply “cup your hands and clap them against your thighs to the running horse rhythm.” Product placement is a bonus extra: “Works best when you’re wearing denim pants.”
- 60.
klangmaschinen.ima.or.at, retrieved 18.9.2013.
- 61.
Compare with the Monty Python‘s parody.
- 62.
So during the early 1930s; Henckels 1966, p. 114.
- 63.
Schnebel, Extrem komprimiert. Anmerkungen zu den Sinfonie-Stücken für Orchester, in: Programmheft des Philharmonischen Staatsorchesters Hamburg (Extremely compressed. Notes to the symphony-pieces for an orchestra. Program sheet of the Philharmonic State Orchestra), 23. 6. 1985, n.p. Emphasis H.-W.H.
- 64.
Ibid.
- 65.
Ibid.
- 66.
Ibid.
- 67.
Demers 2010, p. 173, and p. 172.
- 68.
Demers 2010, p. 174.
- 69.
Ibidem.
- 70.
Ibidem.
- 71.
- 72.
Generally, but especially focussed on trends during the 1980s in the USA, extensively. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/appropriation, retrieved 9.9.18.
- 73.
See e.g. Döhl/Wöhrer 2014.
- 74.
- 75.
See e.g. The Man Who Stole Michael Jackson's Face, https://www.wired.com/1995/02/oswald/, retrieved 16.3.19.
- 76.
- 77.
- 78.
Demers 2010, p. 172.
- 79.
Demers 2010, p. 174.
- 80.
Björn Gottstein, http://www3.musikrat.de/index.php?id=2178, retrieved 30.3.19.
- 81.
- 82.
See https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karneval_der_Tiere, 11.2.19, retrieved 27.3.19.
- 83.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carnival_of_the_Animals, 26.3.19, retrieved 27.3.19.
- 84.
Description as a mix of own, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carnival_of_the_Animals, 26.3.19, retrieved 27.3.19. and https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karneval_der_Tiere, 11.2.19, both retrieved 27.3.19.
- 85.
http://www.nationalanthems.info/fr-70.htm, retrieved 29.3.19.
- 86.
Incidentally: “forever/ewig” is to be heard repeatedly later on in the tones E-D. They constitute also the central phonemes of Er-De (‚earth‘) in German. Thus Mahler condensed heavily and combined two words into a single statement – the earth will exist forever – musically as a unit, in addition to the variation of the wailing-motif.
- 87.
Translation: Larry Rothe, http://www.keepingscore.org/content/farewell-das-lied-von-der-erde-song-earth-symphony-tenor-and-contralto-or-baritone-and-orc, retrieved 25.3.19.
- 88.
Extensively to this, see Kandel 2012.
- 89.
See Sect. 3.2. Foley and producing noises: Similarity through dissimilarity.
- 90.
Straebel 2018, pp. 54f. and 56.
- 91.
Ibid., p. 54.
- 92.
Straebel 2018, p. 59.
- 93.
Ibid., p. 62.
- 94.
Ibid., p. 70.
- 95.
Ibid., p. 54f.
- 96.
Here it must be done without further details on the formation of symmetries and on semantic numbering. The fact that Berg’s choice of 561 as the first of the strange Carmichael numbers for this remarkable passage is possibly not accidental, shall not be further commented here. This Carmichael-number—3×11×17—includes numbers, which were of importance to Berg.
- 97.
The substitution of T with the music-capable D is not uncomon. In an album sheet by Ignaz Moscheles for Louis Spohr, dated 4.3.1815, Moscheles characterized his substitution of t with d (with the expression „aecht“ (genuine)) as „lizentia poetica“ (poetic licences).
- 98.
Artur Schnabel did not bear a joint name, but he led in respect to his marriage a double life. This is certainly under patriarchal conditions somehow irregular, but regrettably not very unusual.
- 99.
Detailed in Dümling 1987, p. 15.
- 100.
»Like in his piano playing and during his instructions, Schnabel very strictly considered in his compositions as well […] the deviations from the regular periodicity of groupings with two-, four- or eight bars. Groups of three-, five- or six bars are always used as an expressive device and in the score of the 1st string quartet they are continuously indicated with Roman numbers.« (Dümling 1987, p. 14).
- 101.
- 102.
Compare Searchinger 1957, p. 96.
- 103.
Here. I follow a hint by Hanjo Polk (given on 3rd of October.2015.—Schnabel‘s joke, in the structural iconic, widely surpasses the subsequent joke. Question: How large in the difference in length between the Nile and the Amazon? Answer: 2 letters. In substance, the effect of the joke is rooted in the fact, that in this case the lengths are not taken and compared, but instead a totally arbitrary reflection of word language is made, and this in the written but not in phonetic form. See: https://schlechtewitze.com/buchstabe, call 3.8.18.
- 104.
More detailed, see: Phleps 1997. It is a coincidence, but one that is musically suitable, that 5 and 8 plus their addition 13, are numbers from the start of the Fibonacci sequence, to which we already frequently referred to,—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 etc. .. Musically, this is especially highly relevant in the context of asymmetry, which is fitting to Fuzzy Logic. If we further add, that both had met in 1853, or permuted in sequence 1-3-5-8 (without 2), so it is rather to much of a coincidence.
- 105.
https://schlechtewitze.com/buchstabe (bad jokes, letter) called 3.8.2018.
- 106.
Demers 2010, p. 171.
- 107.
Ibidem. Emphasis H.-W.H.
- 108.
Straebel 2018, p. 59.
- 109.
Ibid., p. 59. In 2002, Lucier revived the X in Almost New York for five flutes (one player) and oscillators. „Here the X is four octaves up and 24′ wide. Thereby each of the semitones, which are reached by the sineus-tone glissandi, corresponds with a sustained note of the flutes, whereby their performances can be varied, so the tremolos at the beginning and the ending of flute notes may differ“ (Ibid.). Even more elaborate is the crossing of lines in Conlon Nancarrow‘s Study 21 – Canon X for mechanic piano (Extensively, see: Thomas Phleps 2000).
- 110.
Wulff, Hans Jürgen: Palimpsest, http://filmlexikon.uni-kiel.de/index.php?action=lexikon&tag=det&id=3566, 8.2.2012, retrieved 21.2.19.
- 111.
Gérard Genette 1993. Here, following his lecture, in http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palimpseste._Die_Literatur_auf_zweiter_Stufe, 11.5.18, retrieved 8.8.18.
- 112.
See below, 8.3 Verbal form, and 8.2 Quotation form. See also Genette 2001.
- 113.
Cited after https://www.mdr.de/konzerte/werkeinfuehrung-debussy-prelude-a-lapres-midi-dun-faune100.html, retrieved 28.3.19.
- 114.
Por 2002.
- 115.
Kathleen Leary: Connected Choreography? Nijinsky’s “Faune” & Robbins’s “Faun”, https://www.nypl.org/blog/2018/01/05/robbins-faun-nijinsky-faune, January 5, 2018, retrieved 28.3.19.
- 116.
To the multiple examples of music set to pictures, see among others: Christensen/Fink 2011, and also the data base Musik nach Bildern, where compositions, related to pictures, are listed and indexed with meta data. [http://www.musiknachbildern.at] respectively http://webapp.uibk.ac.at/musiknachbildern/mnb.xsql?&&id=442.
- 117.
For this context, see among others, the standard reference by Maur 1985.
- 118.
Extensively in Straebel 2018, p. 67ff.
- 119.
Extensively in Straebel 2018, pp. 64–67.
- 120.
- 121.
For further information see Giovanni Panella: Ottorino Respighi, Vetrate di Chiesa – 4 impressioni per orchestra, http://interlitq.org/blog/2018/03/14/ottorino-respighi-vetrate-di-chiesa-4-impressioni-per-orchestra-scritto-da-giovanni-panella/, retrieved 16.3.19.
- 122.
Ibidem.
- 123.
- 124.
See Georg Predota: Claude Debussy, La Flûte de Pan/ Syrinx. Melodrama and Flute Solo, http://www.interlude.hk/front/claude-debussy-la-flute-de-pan-syrinx-melodrama-flute-solo/, January 5th, 2017, retrieved 27.3.19.
- 125.
https://www.kammermusikfuehrer.de/werke/496, retrieved 28.3.19.
- 126.
See George Predota 2017. Claude Debussy, La Flûte de Pan/ Syrinx. Melodrama and Flute Solo, http://www.interlude.hk/front/claude-debussy-la-flute-de-pan-syrinx-melodrama-flute-solo/, January 5th, 2017, retrieved 27.3.19.
- 127.
Notated, regardless of the correct orthography.
- 128.
See Jochen Scheytt: Syrinx, http://www.jochenscheytt.de/debussy/debussywerke/syrinx.html2016, retrieved 27.2.19.
- 129.
Quoted after https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontessa, 14.12.18, retrieved 23.3.19.
- 130.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontessa, 14.12.18, retrieved 23.3.19.
- 131.
Baldizzone 2007.
- 132.
Quoted after https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontessa.
- 133.
Weber 2014, p. 283.
- 134.
Extensively, ibidem.
- 135.
Banse/Reher 2011, pp. 39f.
- 136.
See extensively e.g. Heister/Polk 2017.
- 137.
„New Orleans-born clarinetist Barney Bigard is likely the originator of this tune […]. Since Bigard was a veteran member of Duke Ellington’s Orchestra in 1941, Duke had a slice of the pie, too, and undoubtedly arranged the piece for the orchestra“ (James Lincoln Collier, http://www.jazzstandards.com/compositions-1/cjamblues.htm, retrieved 26.3.19).
- 138.
“Basically a vehicle for jazz instrumentalists to display their improvisational skills, it is one of those pieces that is far more enjoyable for the player than the listener” (K. J. McElrat, quoted in http://www.jazzstandards.com/compositions-1/cjamblues.htm, retrieved 26.3.19).
- 139.
As mentioned, B in English = B flat, H in English = B. For musical reasons I will stick to the German denotation of B as H.
- 140.
Deutscher 2005, p. 38. Emphasis H.-W.H.
- 141.
Meanwhile more than 350 composers in more than 400 works (https://www.bachueberbach.de/johann-sebastian-bach/b-a-c-h/, retrieved 29.3.19).
- 142.
The whole Viola-Concert of Karl Amadeus Hartmann, the [concert for viola with piano, accompanied by wind/brass players and percussion] Konzert für Bratsche mit Klavier, begleitet von Bläsern und Schlagzeug (1954/1955) is a study in and about BACH—not dodecaphonic, but influenced by Webern.
- 143.
The following very shortened and condensed according to Hottmann 2010.
- 144.
Ibidem.
- 145.
Ibidem.
- 146.
Extensively http://www.musikzeit.de/theorie/verzierungen.php, 19.08.2007, retrieved 21.2.19.
- 147.
Ibidem.
- 148.
Extensively and with illustrations, Spitzer 1996, p. 106.
- 149.
Kangassalo et al. 2020, n.p.
- 150.
Ibid.
- 151.
Cf. e.g. Calvin/Ojemann 2000, p. 154.
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Heister, HW. (2021). The Principle of Similarity: The Resultant of Identity and Difference. In: Music and Fuzzy Logic. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, vol 406. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-62907-9_4
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