Messages in the Media - University of Toronto

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We would like to thank Anna Korteweg, Edith Klein, 

Kate Korycki and Robert Austin for their tremendous 

support and guidance. In addition, we are sincerely 

grateful to the Arts & Science Student Union and the 

Centre for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies at 

the Munk School of Global Affairs for the financial assistance, 

which made this project possible. Furthermore, 

we express our gratitude to Georgina Steinsky- 

Schwartz for her invaluable contributions to this initiative. 

We also acknowledge and applaud the efforts 

and determination of the analysts, without whom this 

journal would not be a reality. 

2

Advisory Board 

Anna Korteweg, PhD 

Edith Klein, PhD 

Kate Korycki, PhD Candidate 

Robert Austin, PhD 

Editorial Board 

Anjela Deyanska – editor 

Gareth Story – editor 

Alessandro Gemmiti – editor 

Christopher Kelly – editor 

Alison Wood – assistant editor 

Farbod Saatsaz van Driel – assistant editor 

Cover Design by Dmitry Novoselov 

© The University of Toronto European Studies 

Students’ Association 

3

CONTENTS 

GLOSSARY 6 

INTRODUCTION 7 

AUSTRIA 9 

BY AGLAIA LOWO 

BELGIUM 17 

BY ALLISON GIBBONS 

BULGARIA 26 

BY ANJELA DEYANSKA 

DENMARK 43 

BY NIKKI VUKASOVIC 

FRANCE 54 

BY EMILY BARRETTE 

GERMANY 63 

BY STEVEN MANTIFEL 

GREECE 77 

BY MARIA VARELAS 

HUNGARY 83 

BY SHIJA ZHANG 

IRELAND 94 

BY CHRIS GRANICOLO 

ITALY 101 

BY ALESSANDRO GEMMITI 

4

MALTA 111 

BY ADRIAN ZITA-BENNETT 

THE NETHERLANDS 121 

BY FARBOD SAATSAZ VAN DRIEL 

POLAND 128 

BY STANISLAW PELC 

PORTUGAL 136 

BY CAMILLA GUIGUER 

ROMANIA 144 

BY ALEXANDRA SAVILO 

THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION 156 

BY AMINA ABDULLAYEVA 

SERBIA 167 

BY PETAR DODIC 

SPAIN 177 

BY ARIADNA PAULIUC 

SWITZERLAND 184 

BY RABIYA ASAD 

TURKEY 191 

BY ISA TOPBAS 

UKRAINE 198 

BY TANYA BRANITSKA 

THE UNITED KINGDOM 206 

BY DEBBIE BUTTS 206 

5

GLOSSARY 

CEPS Centre for European Policy Studies 

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States 

EaP Eastern Partnership 

EC European Commission 

ECSC European Coal and Steel Community 

EEC European Economic Community 

EFSF European Financial Stability Facility 

EFTA European Free Trade Area 

EMU European Monetary Fund 

ESM European Stability Mechanism 

EU European Union 

IMF International Monetary Fund 

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation 

and Development 

SGP Stability and Growth Pact 

WTO World Trade Organization 

NOTE 

Maps and country-specific data on title pages were retrieved 

from the CIA World Factbook on April 1, 2012. 

6

7 

INTRODUCTION 

In October of last year, when we first discussed the 

idea of producing a European Studies Students' Association 

Journal, we were unsure of what it would look like when 

complete. After many meetings and conversations, we decided 

to compile a comprehensive media analysis of how 

European Union Member States' popular media depicted 

the European Union and what issues and trends emerged 

in their relations over the course of 2011. While our original 

vision was to have reports on all twenty-seven Member 

States, due to the difficulty of finding participants who 

were both willing and had the necessary language skills, we 

were only able to cover eighteen Member States. In addition 

to these, we have included four reports on nations who 

have a profound effect on both the current state and future 

of the European Union. Although the final product is more 

limited in scope than originally anticipated, the diverse 

community of the University of Toronto made the realization 

of this journal much easier; outside of this environment 

it would have been an insurmountable obstacle to 

locate so many people with multilingual proficiency. We 

are all incredibly pleased with the result of our analysts' 

efforts, and hope that next year we will be able to build 

upon the success of this year and realize our original vision 

of providing reports on all European Union Member States. 

The massive undertaking that this journal proved 

to be, not only due to its limited timeline, but also because 

of it being the first of its kind, was greatly lightened 

through the assistance, support, and encouragement we 

received from both faculty, members of the community, 

and our peers.

We sincerely hope that you find our journal interesting, 

informative and educational, and that you will look 

forward to reading next year's edition. 

The ESSA Editorial Board, 

March 30, 2012 

8

9 

AUSTRIA 

By Aglaia Lowo 

Ethnic composition: Austrians 91.1%, 

former Yugoslavs 4% (includes Croatians, 

Slovenes, Serbs, and Bosniaks), 

Turks 1.6%, German 0.9%, other or 

unspecified 2.4% (2001 census) 

Population: 8,219,743 (July 2012 est.) 

GDP per capita: $41,700 (2011 est.) 

Member since: 1995 

EU funding in 2010: net contributor

BACKGROUND: 

Austria joined the EU in 1995, along with Sweden 

and Finland, marking the EU’s fourth enlargement. Austria’s 

decision was finalized by a national referendum, in 

which a majority voted in favor of membership. 1 Previously, 

Austria struggled with the idea of joining the EEC, as it 

was apprehensive of compromising its neutrality. 2 Despite 

years of deliberation concerning the EEC, Austria did not 

hesitate to partake in other European initiatives, such as 

the EFTA, of which it was a founding member. In 2002 Austria 

successfully implemented the euro as its official currency. 

MEDIA SOURCES: 

Der Standard 

www.derstandard.at 

Der Standard is a self-proclaimed liberal, national, daily 

newspaper, with no public affiliations to any political party. 

It is a widely read daily with over 100,000 copies in circulation 

daily. The online edition boasts a section explicitly 

concerning the EU, with updates made multiple times a 

day. 3 

Der Österreichische Rundfunk (ORF) 

www.orf.at 

Der Österreichische Rundfunk is the largest state-owned, 

national public service broadcaster in Austria, and provides 

the country with a combination of regional and nationwide 

television and radio channels. 4 

Die Presse 

www.diepresse.com 

Die Presse is a conservative liberal, national newspaper, 

issued daily, and closely linked to the Austrian Peoples’ 

Party. The paper is considered elitist, with a daily circula- 

10

tion of approximately 98,000 copies. Its online version is 

updated throughout the day. 5 

FINDINGS: 

There were three prominent, inter-related topics that 

stood out in the Austrian media in 2011: the Eurozone crisis, 

EU enlargement, and Schengen reform with the potential 

for a unified EU-asylum policy. 

Eurozone crisis 

The topic with the most media coverage throughout 2011 

was the Eurozone crisis and its implications for the EU and 

for Austria. 

- In the New Year’s speech delivered by the Austrian President, 

Heinz Fischer, the topic of the Eurozone crisis and 

Austria’s role in it were addressed extensively. 6 

- Nevertheless, there was a general consensus among the 

press that Austria remained one of the most optimistic 

countries in the EU, concerning its future in the institution. 7 

This optimism is reflected in multiple articles concerning 

Austria scoring as one of the ‘Top Four’ most optimistic 

countries in the Eurozone, despite the economic hardship 

confronted by the EU throughout 2011. 8 Most articles concerning 

this topic displayed a rather objective view of the 

discussion concerning the EU’s “Rettungsschirm” (emergency 

parachute), presenting a balanced account of the 

opinions held on this topic. 9 

- However, some articles portray more radical views, which 

are usually denoted by the opinion of the prominent rightwing 

political party in Austria, die Freiheitliche Partei 

Österreichs (FPÖ). Customarily, the FPÖ take a stance 

against Austria’s greater involvement in the EU, especially 

when it comes to funding countries like Greece during the 

Eurozone crisis. 10 Conversely, many articles were seen to 

condone the EU’s aid to Greece and the EU’s actions 

throughout the Eurozone crisis as a whole. 11 

11

EU Enlargement 

Another prominent issue in the Austrian media in 2011 

was the further enlargement of the EU to Southeastern European 

states, such as Croatia and Serbia, and more controversially, 

Turkey. On this topic the articles gave an array 

of opinions and stances, especially in light of the economic 

crisis Europe faced. 

- Der Standard reported that the President of the Austrian 

Federal Economic Chamber, Christoph Leitl, publicly announced 

that he believed Turkey is not ready for the EU, 

and the EU is not ready for Turkey; eight days later, the 

same newspaper reported a different opinion, which held 

that Turkey and the EU needed each other. 12 13 

Schengen Reform and Asylum Policy 

Another topic that was raised with some frequency was the 

reemergence of border control issues, specifically those 

pertaining to the Schengen Agreement. 14 

- Many of the articles on this topic addressed the uncertainty 

of the potential for future changes to the Schengen 

Agreement in relation to the growing question of the EU’s 

stance on asylum. 15 

- Thus, the question of a unified EU-asylum policy was also 

discussed with some frequency. 16 

2011 IN REVIEW: 

In 2011, discourse in the Austrian media underwent 

a significant transition from focusing predominantly 

on domestic issues to those concerning Austria in the EU. 

This shift became increasingly prevalent with the EU’s response 

to the collapse of the Greek economy and the Eurozone 

crisis. During his New Year’s address on 1 January 

2012, Austrian President, Heinz Fischer placed great emphasis 

on the EU, and Austria’s role in it. 17 This was conflicting 

with the speech he had delivered on the 1 January 

2011, which did not place the same emphasis on the EU or 

the economic plight of Europe. 18 

12

Overall, Austria’s attitude to the Eurozone crisis 

was considered hopeful, as both Die Presse and Der Standard 

reported that Austria scored as the fourth most optimistic 

country in the EU. 19 20 Thus, despite fiscal hardship, 

and some more radical views that called for Austria’s withdrawal 

from Eurozone crisis funding, the population at 

large, as represented by the Austrian media, appeared to be 

content with the EU. Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 

Michael Spindelegger, also addressed the Eurozone crisis, 

reinforcing that this was a time to support the EU and its 

development; he went so far as to advocate for the enhancement 

of EU policy in foreign affairs and a move towards 

European political union. 21 22 This suggests that the 

Eurozone crisis has, at least on a governmental level, enhanced 

Austria’s ties and relationship to the EU throughout 

2011. 

The next major issue covered by the Austrian media 

was that of EU enlargement. While the growing possibility 

of Croatia, Serbia and the Ukraine joining the EU was 

discussed at great length, it was mainly Turkey’s bid to become 

the newest EU member that caused the most heated 

debate among the media sources. While Der Standard reported 

on Christoph Leitl’s public announcement that he 

believed Turkey is not ready for the EU, and the EU is not 

ready for Turkey, only eight days later the same newspaper 

reported a different opinion, which held that Turkey and 

the EU needed each other. 23 24 This suggests that the media 

represented a balanced array of opinions on the topic of 

Turkey joining the EU. The media did not seem to notice a 

particular change in the Austrian public’s feelings towards 

the EU and the politics of enlargement. 

When it came to the issue of the Schengen Agreement, 

the Austrian media reflected a variety of views, especially 

in light of the Arab Spring and the increasing flow of 

refugees, asylum seekers, and illegal immigrants to Austria. 

The Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs stated explicitly 

that he wished to reinstate controls between the Schengen 

countries’ borders in light of the Arab Spring, without inaugurating 

the reinforcement of permanent border controls. 

25 This raised the question of the formation of a uni- 

13

fied EU asylum policy. Once again, the Austrian media represented 

a variety of assessments, offering the public a diverse 

array of opinions on this topic. As with the issue of 

EU enlargement, the questions arising from Schengen reform 

and the creation of EU asylum law did not seem contentious 

enough to sway the Austrian public’s opinion of 

the EU. 

In conclusion, the issue dealt with most frequently 

by the media, the Eurozone crisis, did not stunt the growth 

of Austria’s affection for the EU. The issues concerning EU 

enlargement, the Schengen border controls, and the growing 

issue of asylum seekers did not prompt a particular 

public reaction to the EU. Therefore, while Austria’s relationship 

with the EU was, economically speaking, put to the 

test over the course of 2011, it did not fundamentally 

change the public’s perceptions of or feelings towards the 

EU itself. 

14

1 Demokratiezentrum Wien. Date of access: 29/01/2012. 

2 ibid. 

3 “Source profile: Der Standard.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

4 Österreichischer Rundfunk. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

5 “Source profile: Die Presse.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

6 Fischer, Heinz. "2012 ist das Jahr der Entscheidungen und 

gemeinsamen Anstrengungen." Neujahrsansprache des 

Bundespräsidenten. Hofburg, Vienna. 01 January 2012. Date of access: 

10/02/2012. 

7 "Heimische Wirtschaftslage: Optimismus macht sich breit." Die Presse. 

18 February 2011. Date of access: 05/02/2012. 

8 ibid. 

9 "Heftiger Streit um Paket zur Eurorettung ." Die Presse. 23 March 2011. 

Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

10 "FPÖ-Podgorschek: Kein Geld mehr für Griechenland." Der Standard. 

07 June 2011. Date of access: 05/02/2012. 

11 "Österreicher wollen Griechenland nicht ‘hängen lassen.’" Der Standard. 


12 "Leitl an Türkei: Es geht auch ohne EU-Mitgliedschaft." Der Standard. 


13 Solana, Javier. "Die Türkei und Europa brauchen einander." Der Standard. 


14 "Grenzkontrolle: Dänemark Fordert EU Zu Klage Auf." DiePresse. 20 

July 2011. Date of access: 06/04/2012. 

15 "Das Schicksalspapier Der Flüchtlinge." Der Standard. 30 July 2011. 


16 "Einheitliche EU-Asylpolitik: Widerstand Aus Deutschland." DiePresse. 

20 August 2011. Date of access: 06/04/2012. 

17 Fischer, Heinz. "2012 ist das Jahr der Entscheidungen und 

gemeinsamen Anstrengungen." Neujahrsansprache des 

Bundespräsidenten. Hofburg, Vienna. 01 January 2012. Date of access: 

10/02/2012. 

18 Fischer, Heinz. "Die Neujahrsanprache des Bundespräsidenten im 

Wortlaut, 1. 1. 2011." Neujahrsansprache des Bundespräsidenten. 

Hofburg, Vienna. 01 January 2011. Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

19 "Heimische Wirtschaftslage: Optimismus macht sich breit." Die Presse. 


20 "Österreicher sehen Wirtschaftslage optimistisch." Der Standard. 18 

February 2011. Date of access: 05/02/2012. 

21 Spindelegger, Michael. "Die Krise in der EU und Eurozone – Österreichs 

Reaktion". Vienna: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 26 October 2011. Date 

of access: 05/02/2012 

22 ibid. 

23 "Leitl an Türkei: Es geht auch ohne EU-Mitgliedschaft." Der Standard. 


15

24 Solana, Javier. "Die Türkei und Europa brauchen einander." Der Standard. 


25 Spindelegger, Michael. "Rede von Vizekanzler und Außenminister 

Michael Spindeleger am Europa-Forum Wachau, Stift Göttweig." 

Regionalpolitik – Weltpolitik. The Austrian Ministery of Foreign Affairs. 

Wachau, Stift Göttweig, Wachau. 22 May 2011. Date of access: 

07/02/2012. 

16

17 

BELGIUM 

By Allison Gibbons 

Ethnic composition: Flemish 58%, Walloon 

31%, mixed or other 11% 





BACKGROUND: 

Belgium is a constitutional monarchy and as of 

2007 it became a federal state. 1 It was one of the three 

founding members of the EC in 1957, and of the Benelux 

Economic Union in 1958. 2 Belgium has always maintained 

a close relationship with the EU and has been at the forefront 

of pursuing European integration. 3 The bilingual capital 

of Brussels hosts several international organizations: 

most of the European institutions are located in Belgium as 

well as the NATO headquarters. 4 The country is culturally 

divided between the Flemish speaking north and the 

French speaking south. 5 This has led to prolonged tensions, 

and Belgium's political instability has always been particularly 

worrying to the EU, especially in 2010 when it coincided 

with the country taking over the rotating 6-month 

Presidency of the EU Council of Ministers. 6 


Het Laatste Nieuws (The Latest News) 

www.hln.be 

Het Laastste Nieuws is a Dutch language newspaper based 

in Brussels, with a daily circulation of 300,000. 7 It is owned 

by De Persgroep Publishing, which originated as a small 

local Flemish newspaper and has grown into the largest 

media company in Belgium and the Netherlands, with a 

turnover of almost one billion euros. 8 Het Laastste Nieuws 

was established in 1888 as a moderate liberal Flemish 

newspaper, 9 suggesting an anti-francophone stance and 

support for the Flemish movement. De Persgroep Publishing 

is the leading newspaper publisher in Belgium and also 

publishes daily newspapers De Morgen, De Tiid, and its 

French counter-part L`Echo. 10 

18

Le Soir 

www.lesoir.be 

Le Soir is seen as liberal and progressive, with politically 

federalist leanings. The newspaper’s motto is: an "Evening" 

fighting for the rights of men and women, respect for human 

dignity, freedom of expression and multiculturalism. 11 

It is one of the most popular francophone newspapers in 

Belgium. 12 The publication is owned by the Rossel & Cie 

and has a daily circulation of 90,000. 13 

De Staandard 

www.standaard.be 

De Staandard is a Flemish daily newspaper traditionally 

associated with the Christian-Democratic and Flemish Parties. 

14 Today, De Staandard claims to be politically neutral. 

15 De Staandard is a member of Raad voor de Journalistiek 

(RvdJ- Council for Journalism); the independent body 

for self-regulation of the Flemish press in Belgium. 16 It was 

founded by and remains partially funded by the journalist 

unions and by publishers and media houses in Flanders. 17 

It is a widely read newspaper with a daily circulation of 

95,000. 18 

Flanders News 

www.deredactie.be 

Flanders News is Belgium’s online news website for the 

Flemish Radio- and Television Network Organisation 

(VRT). The VRT is the public broadcasting network for the 

Flemish Community. 19 Its objective is to be a public broadcasting 

company “of everyone, for everyone”. 20 The company 

provides audiovisual programmes and services to a 

wide audience on diverse platforms, and claims to be independent 

of commercial or political influence. 21 The programmes 

aim to further the development of the Flemish 

cultural identity, and a democratic and tolerant society. 22 

19

FINDINGS: 

Assessment of Belgium’s 6-month EU presidency 

EU-Belgium relations commenced in 2011 on a high note. 

- 18 January 2011: Members of the European Parliament 

have expressed praise for the Belgian presidency of the 

EU. 23 Speaking at a plenary session of the European Parliament 

in Strasbourg, several members complemented 

Belgium on its stewardship of the EU during the country’s 

turn at the presidency that ran from 1 July until 31 December 

2010. 24 

Following this success, the relationship between Belgium 

and the EU concerned the following topics for the rest of 

2011: 

Belgium without a federal government for 541 days 

- 20 March 2011: Belgium was criticized in Het Laatste 

Nieuws for failing to implement the EU Framework. 25 The 

deadline for implementing the EU Framework Decision in 

2006 passed and with the fall of the government and the 

dissolution of parliament, the draft law could not be submitted 

by parliament. 26 

- 30 March 2011: Belgian sets the new world record, surpassing 

Iran, as the country to have experienced the longest 

time period with no official government (289 days). 27 

However, Belgian sentiment remains one of indifference; 

the record is not mentioned and in fact is denied in local 

media outlets, referring to Cambodia, which they claim 

went 353 days without a government. 28 

- 30 March 2011: De Standaard reiterated this fact, stating 

that Bart de Wever N-VA(New Flemish Alliance) and Di 

Rupo PS (Socialist Party) still have two months to form a 

government before Belgium becomes the new world 

record holder. 29 

- 20 July 2011: King Albert indicated his frustration with 

the current political impasse. 30 He points to the leading 

role that Belgium played in European integration and 

20

notes that this role could be damaged if Belgium’s political 

stalemate continues. 31 

- 1 September 2011: The European Commission issued an 

urgent warning to Belgium to take speedy action to form 

a fully-functioning government. 32 

The Eurozone Crisis 

- 11 April 2011: Didier Reynders, the finance minister, 

sought to "break the myths" of the budgetary situation of 

the country. The federal government and country focused 

on the revision of the Stability Programme and the Belgian 

National Reform Programme, which had been expected 

by the European Commission. 33 

- 22 October 2011: Belgium agreed to the creation of the 

EFSF, which guaranteed investors bonds issued by Eurozone 

countries. 34 

- 12 November 2011: A budget by Monday? The Flemish 

and Francophone Socialists, Christian democrats and liberals 

needed to find 11.3 billion Euros to ensure that the 

2012 budget deficit did not exceed the 2.8% agreed upon 

with the EU. 35 Belgium was added to the EU black list and 

was reprimanded by the European Commission, as the 

growth predictions released by it put growth in Belgium 

at 0.9% for 2011. 36 

- 14 December 2011: The “historic” summit of the ECB did 

little to convince either markets or analysts that 37 Europe 

was doomed to remain in "crisis". 38 

The Arab Spring 

- 4 February 2011: Over 200 protestors gathered in Brussels 

to demand the departure of former Egyptian President 

Hosni Mubarak and to demand the show of support 

from EU leaders for the democratic changes in the Middle 

East. 39 

- 2 March 2011: The EU increased humanitarian aid for Libyan 

refugees from €3 million to €10 million. 40 

21

- 25 May 2011: The EU pledged an extra €1.2 million of 

“conditional aid” for 2012-2013 to the Arab states undergoing 

revolution. 41 

- 8 September 2011: MSF (Médecins sans frontiers) stated 

that the EU member states should help instead of closing 

their borders to "illegal immigration." 42 “We are questioning 

the double standards of the international community; 

at the European level, the answer is not closing the borders.” 

43 


The analysis of popular Belgian media indicates 

that there has been a noticeable deterioration in relations 

between Belgium and the EU in 2011. By year’s beginning 

the EU considered Belgium’s EU presidency, which ended 

on 1 January 2011, to be particularly successful. By year’s 

end the EU criticized and pressured Belgium to solve its 

ongoing political and economic impasse. These sentiments 

were echoed by King Albert, who in the Flanders News, 

urged the politicians to resolve their differences, as he 

made references to the special position of Belgium within 

the EU. He claimed: “Brussels has become the de facto European 

capital. Our country, with its cultural diversity has 

partly been seen as a model for the European Union.” 44 

A country that has traditionally been an advocate of 

European integration, Belgium has had a difficult time 

maintaining this stance. Concerns of domestic turmoil and 

market volatility have strained its relations with the EU. 

The EU has come under fire domestically for its handling of 

the Eurozone crisis thus far. Beatrice Delvaux, chief editor 

of Le Soir, exemplifies this negativity in many of her articles. 

She writes that the majority of people are sceptical of 

the austerity measures implemented by Prime Minister 

Elio Di Rupo and his government. 45 She places blame on 

her own country for having “waited too long,” to implement 

these measures and notes that the entire euro area is 

now at stake. 46 

It can be said with confidence that the Belgian media 

has played a significant role in portraying the EU in a 

22

generally negative light over the past year. It has brought 

to the forefront the restrictions, limitations and demands of 

the EU at a time of Belgian domestic discord. At the same 

time, certain exogenous events, such as those in Egypt and 

Libya, demonstrate the circumstances under which Belgium 

is willing to support, and also pressure the EU to fulfill 

its obligations. Events throughout 2011, have not resulted 

in overtly hostile feelings between Belgium and the 

EU, but rather indicate a period of increasingly strained 

relations. 

23

1 “EU facts.” Civitas. 21 July 2011. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

2 ibid. 

3 ibid. 

4 “Belgium.” Europa. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

5 “EU facts.” Civitas. 21 July 2011. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

6 ibid. 

7 “Source Profile: Het Laatste Nieuws” Presseurop. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

8 “Toonaangevende krantenuitgever in Belgie en Nederland.” De Persgroep 

Newspapers. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

9 “Flemish Movement.” Multilingual Archive. 2011. Date of access: 

05/01/2012. 

10 “Toonaangevende krantenuitgever in Belgie en Nederland.” De Persgroep 

Newspapers. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

11 Original text : “Un « Soir» de combat pour les droits de l'homme et de 

la femme, le respect de la dignité humaine, la liberté d'expression, la 

multiculturalité.” in “Le Soir se lève contre l’inacceptable.” Le Soir. 

2005. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

12 “Belgian and EU Media.” International Press Centre Brussels. Date of 

access: 05/01/2012. 

13 “Source Profile: Le Soir.” Presseurop. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

14 “Belgian and EU Media.” International Press Centre Brussels. Date of 

access: 05/01/2012. 

15 ibid. 

16 “Raad voor de Journalistiek.” Raad voor de Journalistiek. Date of 

access: 05/01/2012. 

17 ibid. 

18 “Source Profile: De Standaard” Presseurop. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

19 “Tasks.” Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie. 2010. Date of 

access: 08/01/2012. 

20 ibid. 

21 ibid. 

22 ibid. 

23 “Praise for Belgian EU Presidency.” FlandersNews. 18 January 2011. 


24 ibid. 

25 “Belgium goes wrong money by failing to transpose EU framework.” 

Het Laatste Nieuws. 20 March 2011. Date of access: 20/01/2012. 

26 ibid. 

27 “Belgian political crisis sets new world record.” Euractiv. 01 April 


28 “We do not yet have the record from Cambodia.” De Morgen. 30 March 


29 “Belgium no world record form of government.” De Staandard. 30 

March 2011. Date of access: 18/01/2012. 

24

30 “King Albert warns the political class.” FlandesNews. 20 July 2012. 


31 ibid. 

32 “Ministers justify austerity.” Le Soir. Date of access: 18/01/2012. 

33 ibid. 

34 “Belgium supports European emergency fund as guarantor.” Het 

Laatste Nieuws. 22 September2011. Date of access: 9/02/2012. 

35 “A budget by Monday?” FlandersNews. 11 November 2011. Date of 

access: 18/01/2012. 

36 ibid. 

37 “Europe wants a Belgium government that decides.” Le Soir. 01 August 


38 ibid. 

39 “Over 200 protesters demands departure Mubarak in Brussels.” De 

Morgen. 04 February 2011. Date of access: 09/02/2012. 

40 “EU strengthens humanitarian aid to Libyan refugees.” De Morgen. 02 


41 ibid. 

42 “Die between Libya and Lampedusa.” Het Laatste Nieuws. 08 August 


43 ibid. 

44 “King Albert warns the political class.” FlandesNews. 20 July 2012. 


45 “Run for your Lives!” Le Soir. 28 November 2011. Date of access: 

18/01/2012. 

46 ibid. 

25

BULGARIA 

By Anjela Deyanska 

Ethnic composition: Bulgarian 83.9%, Turk 

9.4%, Roma 4.7%, other 2% (including Macedonian, 

Armenian, Tatar, Circassian) (2001 

census) 




EU funding in 2010: net recipient 

26

BACKGROUND: 

Situated in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria 

is a parliamentary democracy with a long and colourful 

history, the impact of which remains visible in Bulgarian 

society today. Following the end of the Second World War, 

Bulgaria was ruled under a one party, communist regime 

and was widely recognized as one of the well-established 

Soviet satellite states in the communist bloc. Subsequent to 

the collapse of communism, during the early 1990s Bulgaria 

experienced political instability, which was a key factor 

in the country's slow transition process, only joining the EU 

in 2007, as opposed to 2004 as many had hoped. 1 Bulgaria's 

inability to institute lasting reforms combatting corruption 

and organized crime has continued to raise concerns, 

and led to the 2008 suspension of hundreds of millions 

worth of euros in EU funding. 2 Since that time, the EU 

has consistently insisted that Bulgaria's administration focus 

on implementing thorough reforms aimed at reducing 

corruption, especially in the judicial sector. 3 


A number of global media conglomerates have acquired a 

stake in Bulgaria's media market since the country’s transition 

to a market economy in the 1990s. 4 Privately owned 

press sources are common, and freedom of the press is 

protected under the constitution; however, as a 2009 report 

from the Paris-based Reporters Without Borders cautioned, 

investigative journalism and media pluralism in the 

country are being threatened by political pressure, organized 

crime and corruption. 5 

Trud 

www.trud.bg 

Founded in 1936, Trud is one of the oldest and most widely 

read newspapers in Bulgaria, with an estimated current 

daily circulation of 100,000. 6 It is a self-proclaimed 'centre' 

paper, which takes pride in its lengthy history in Bulgarian 

27

media. 7 In 1997 the German press conglomerate WAZ, 

which currently owns several other news sources in the 

country, the most prominent being 24 Chasa, bought the 

newspaper. 8 Trud is well-known for publishing trivial news 

items; however, its investigative reporting is a respected 

feature, specifically when making revelations about the 

country’s political elite. 9 

Standart 

www.standartnews.com 

Founded in 1992, Standart is owned by a private news 

agency, Standart News, and was the first Bulgarian newspaper 

to be published both in print and online. 10 The 

newspaper also features an English version on its website 

and has a current circulation of about 100,000, making it 

one of the most widely read newspapers in the country. 11 

At the time of its launch, the newspaper targeted businesssavvy 

and intellectual audiences; however, since the turn of 

the century, its readership has shifted to a less-educated 

demographic, as the nature of its reporting became predominantly 

tabloid-like. It continues to feature a wide range 

of topics, from economics to revelations about Bulgarian 

celebrities, this range is suggested as the main reason for 

its continued popularity. 12 

Dnevnik 

www.dnevnik.bg 

Part of "Economedia", the largest private group of business 

media in Bulgaria, Dnevnik was launched in 1999 following 

the success of Kapital, a weekly business newspaper widely-recognized 

for its thorough, independent economic and 

political analysis. 13 Dnevnik has featured a popular online 

edition, targeting mainly business audiences as well as intellectuals, 

who, for over 10 years have been attracted by 

the newspaper's independent and professional reporting. 

On October 31, 2011, with the launch of Kapital Daily, the 

new print edition Economedia offers to its valued business- 

28

savvy readers, Dnevnik became an exclusively online news 

source. 14 

FINDINGS: 

Over 400 articles were consulted from the three aforementioned 

media sources with broad readership in Bulgaria 

using the following keywords to search: "Bulgaria and the 

EU", "euro", "Schengen Area". Given the initial volume and 

range of articles, a limited search narrowed the results 

down to 318 articles relevant to current Bulgaria-EU relations. 

From these findings, the following four topics stood 

out as the leading issues reported on in 2011. 

Bulgaria and Romania's accession to the Schengen area 

- As 2011 began, the majority of reporting on the topic of 

Schengen discussed Bulgaria and Romania's expectations 

for accession according to the schedule set out by the EU, 

including articles indicating support for the two countries' 

accession to the border free zone. 15 By mid-January 

2011, all three newspapers reported on the EU's criticism 

which revealed the issues that stood in the way of Bulgaria's 

accession to the Schengen area, 16 17 as well as the 

reaction of the Bulgarian administration, promising that 

the criteria will be met in time for the scheduled accession 

in March 2011. 18 19 20 21 22 In addition several articles 

also indicated that Bulgaria and Romania demanded that 

the EU stick to its promises and 'not change the rules of 

the game, halfway through', questioning whether the accession 

criteria have been equal for all of its member 

29 

states. 

23 24 

- In domestic politics, the issue of the delayed accession to 

Schengen was widely linked to a scandal that unfolded in 

the end of 2010, dealing with government authorized 

special investigative techniques ('CPC' in Bulgarian). 25 

The opposition parties openly criticized the majority government’s 

use of such methods, claiming that the invasion 

of privacy was a strong indicator of the 'police state' that 

the GERB administration had created. 26 The issue was al-

so viewed, by foreign political scientists, as having a negative 

impact on Bulgaria's accession to the Schengen 

area. 27 28 

- All three news sources reported the German and French 

opposition to the acceptance of Bulgaria and Romania into 

the border free area, stating that issues of border security 

had not been completely resolved. 29 30 31 In contrast, 

the papers also covered the position of numerous other 

EU states such as Spain, Poland, Hungary, 32 Luxembourg33 and the Czech Republic, 34 all of which openly voiced their 

support of Bulgaria and Romania, and in several instances 

criticized their colleagues’ opposition. 35 36 37 38 

- The issue was exacerbated in mid-2011 when both Bulgaria 

and Romania gained the support of several EU 

states in asserting that they had successfully met the necessary 

criteria for joining the Schengen area. 39 This 

meant that the divide between those in support of their 

accession and those opposing it grew even wider. 40 41 The 

Bulgarian media reflected the opinions of prominent EU 

leaders calling for the support of the two countries’ accession, 

insisting that anything less would severely damage 

solidarity within the union. 42 43 44 45 46 

- Regardless of the obvious and widespread disappointment 

presented in the media, 47 48 by June, the administration 

had shifted towards proactively seeking an exact answer 

as to when Bulgaria should expect to join the borderless 

zone, 49 50 51 aiming for the first quarter of 2012, 52 

while France's prognosis in July stated the accession will 

likely happen towards the end of 2012. 53 54 By the fourth 

quarter of 2011, Bulgaria and Romania’s accession to 

Schengen had already become a sore topic, as the leadership 

of both countries insisted that the opposition of the 

Netherlands, France, 55 56 Germany, 57 Denmark, 58 Sweden, 

Belgium and Finland59 60 was unfair, claiming that the criteria 

set out had been achieved. 61 62 63 64 No final decision 

was made in 2011; 65 66 however, there was an indication 

of a possible date of accession for air travel of March 

2012. 67 The heavily reported and discussed topic of accession 

to the Schengen Area unsurprisingly continued 

well into January 2012. 68 

30

The Euro crisis, Bulgaria's involvement in Euro-Plus 

and Bulgaria's own economic performance 

- General reporting on the developments related to the Euro 

crisis, 69 70 such as the troublesome economic decline of 

the Eurozone; 71 focusing mainly on the situation in 

neighbouring Greece, 72 with several reports also dealing 

with Italy, Spain, 73 and Portugal’s74 economic difficulties. 

- Reports on the domestic economic reality75 in comparison 

with that of the EU76 77 as a whole and several of the most 

fiscally troubled member states. These reports feature 

reviews of the Bulgarian economy78 79 80 and health of the 

financial sector, 81 82 83 84 and discuss the country's eventual 

transition to the euro. 85 86 87 88 89 90 Several reports also 

discussed the EU's request that Bulgaria alter its tax 

laws, specifically the conditions applied to its VAT refund, 

claiming that the practice was discriminatory to persons 

involved in activities within the European Union. 91 

- Bulgaria’s participation in Euro-Plus92 93 and its contribution 

towards possible bailout funds; 94 95 96 including several 

widely read interviews with the Minister of the Interior, 

the Premier, 97 98 the Minister of Economics, 99 the Minister 

of Finance, 100 101 102 and European leaders 103 regarding 

the Euro crisis104 105 as a whole and Bulgaria's 

economic position within it. 106 107 By the end of 2011, 

Premier Boiko Borisov proposed that the countries within 

the EU that have maintained a deficit under 3% should 

be rewarded for their fiscal discipline and others be encouraged 

to follow suit; 108 109 110 this is referred to as 'the 

golden rule,'111 and the Bulgarian administration has 

heavily advocated its implementation. 112 113 114 Reports 

have also indicated that the administration, joined by 

other Eastern European states, does not want to financially 

support bailout funds for struggling EU countries such 

as Greece, where the standard of living is significantly 

higher than in Bulgaria. 115 116 117 

31

Issue of reforms 

Since Bulgaria’s accession to the EU in 2007, its failure to 

implement lasting reforms in several key areas, such as the 

judicial sector, building and combatting corruption, has 

resulted in consistent criticism from the EU. 

- The issue of reforms was significant in 2011, as 41 of the 

most read articles suggest, especially in the areas of infrastructure 

building, 118 the fight against organized crime 

and corruption, 119 and judicial reform. 120 Corruption, specifically 

customs fraud, was criticized by EU member 

states121 and institutions such as the European Anti-Fraud 

Office (OLAF), 122 and was indicated as having a negative 

effect on Bulgaria's future. 

- In June 2011, a report by the European Commission indicated 

that Bulgaria's labour market was worsening, as 

unemployment rose and productivity declined. 123 

- In addition to these, the issue of improper and insufficient 

absorption of EU funds was a point of criticism and an 

area in which the European Commission insisted reforms 

were necessary. 124 125 

Work permits 

A less frequently reported on topic, but one of increasing 

importance in Bulgaria-EU relations, especially given the 

country’s unrealized accession to the Schengen Area, is the 

issue of work permits 126. 

- The media reported on the implementation of the 'blue 

card' system for foreign professionals in Bulgaria, following 

the example of the rest of the EU. 127 

- Bulgaria and Romania have agreed to work together in 

their efforts to abolish employment restrictions for their 

citizens working within the EU. 128 

- In the fall of 2011, the European Parliament requested 

that the EU's labour markets become open to Bulgarians 

by 2012, 129 and that no country in the union should restrict 

Bulgarian workers after 2013, 130 While some countries 

in the EU, including Belgium 131 and Italy, 132 abolished 

their restrictions as of January 1, 2012, others, 

32

such as France, 133 Germany, the UK and the Netherlands, 

have insisted on maintaining them for as long as possible. 

134 


Throughout 2011, the following issues affected relations 

between Bulgaria and the EU: Bulgaria’s accession to 

the Schengen Area; the Euro crisis and other economic developments; 

the matter of domestic reforms; and work 

permits and restrictions. While the articles consulted were 

of news reports, instead of op-ed pieces or commentaries, 

some general attitudes were depicted, indicating the portrayal 

of Bulgarian-EU relations in the popular domestic 

press. 

The disappointment over the delay of Bulgaria’s accession 

to the Schengen area, one of the most widely reported 

on topics in 2011, had a negative impact on the 

country’s overall attitude towards the EU, especially after 

the administration claimed the requirements were completed, 

which was suggested by an EU-led inspection. The 

notion that the criteria for Schengen were not consistent, 

strongly affected domestic views of the delay imposed on 

Bulgaria and Romania, as politicians from both countries 

insisted that the necessary requirements had been met. 

Bulgarian reporting on the issue did reflect the increasing 

dissatisfaction shared by the vast majority of the population 

over what some perceived to be unfair treatment, 

while others saw the delay as a result of the existing corruption 

and lack of reforms. As 2011 came to a close, the 

issue of Bulgaria’s accession to Schengen remained a hot 

topic, with reports mainly discussing the possible dates of 

accession set out for 2012. 

The other prominent issue in the Bulgarian media 

was the Eurozone crisis and the economic turmoil that persisted 

throughout 2011, and more specifically its consequences 

for Bulgaria. As the economic reality of the Eurozone 

countries became increasingly dire, all three news 

sources consulted produced articles contrasting the domestic 

economic situation with that of other member 

33

states, and the EU as a whole, indicating the high unemployment 

rate as the most pressing economic factor in Bulgaria, 

while praising the country’s relatively stable financial 

sector. The portrayed strength of the domestic financial 

sector was further emphasized through the numerous 

articles quoting the Minister of Finance, the Premier and 

other members of the political elite, as well as statistical 

data demonstrating the relative health of the Bulgarian 

currency in comparison to the euro. Overall, the euro crisis 

had two major impacts on Bulgaria as can be analyzed 

through the compilation of articles: firstly, there were 

growing fears over the grim forecast for the Eurozone as a 

whole, some as far-reaching as the Minister of Finance 

himself announcing there was a high chance for the euro to 

collapse by mid 2011; and secondly, the formation of Europlus, 

and Bulgaria’s role within it, increased concern 

amongst the population about the potential bailout packages 

that the country would fund. While the euro crisis 

created worrisome prospects for most Europeans, Bulgarians’ 

fear that they would, in effect, have to contribute to 

bailout funds for countries with substantially higher GDPs 

and standards of living, was a concern unique to Bulgaria. 

As the poorest member of the EU, providing any financial 

aid to struggling Eurozone countries, such as Greece, was 

widely portrayed as a strain the country could and would 

not endure, for the sake of, what were frequently referred 

to as, ‘irresponsible’ states. In this regard, the euro crisis 

also negatively impacted public opinion of the EU, as the 

majority of Bulgarians felt it was unjust that they would 

provide financial assistance to countries with higher standards 

of living and overall economic output. 

The issues of reforms and work permits, although 

less reported on, were still dominant topics that influenced 

the perception of the EU within Bulgaria. Since its accession 

to the union, Bulgaria has struggled to implement successful 

reforms, and has consistently been criticized by the 

EU in its annual reviews. 2011 proved to be no different in 

this regard, and the media’s portrayal of the criticism was 

largely focused on the judicial sector and fighting organized 

crime. The link between the lack of successful re- 

34

forms and the delay in the country’s accession to the 

Schengen area was the only new development on the issue; 

it obviously had a negative impact, as the vast majority of 

Bulgarians have become increasingly discouraged and disillusioned 

by the topic. 

Similarly, the topic of work permits and restrictions 

also had a negative effect on the perception of the union, as 

Bulgarians continue to face work restrictions within the 

EU. While the European Parliament called for the abolition 

of all work restrictions by the end of 2013, several member 

states such as France, Germany, and the UK announced that 

their labour restrictions on Bulgarian and Romanian workers 

would remain in place until further notice. While a few 

agreements were finalized, allowing certain professionals 

to practice within the EU and vice versa, the general attitude 

towards the issue of work permits was negative. Bulgaria’s 

experience of receiving mixed treatment from other 

member states regarding the issue of work restrictions has 

left Bulgarians with the attitude that they are not being 

treated equally within the union. Receiving mixed treatment 

by member states on the issue of work restrictions 

was an off-putting experience, and it fostered a shared attitude 

that Bulgaria is not being treated equally within the 

EU. 

35

1 "Bulgaria Country Profile." BBC News. 2012. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

2 ibid. 

3 ibid. 

4 ibid. 

5 ibid. 

6 "Source Profile: Trud." Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

7 "About Us (Za nas)." Trud. 28 January 2012. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

8 "Source Profile: Trud." Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

9 ibid. 

10 "About Us (Za Nas)." Standart News. 2012. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

11 "Source Profile: Standart." Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

12 ibid. 

13 "Source Profile: Dnevnik." Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

14 "Prodaljavame." Dnevnik. 30 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

15 "Холандия ни дава рамо за Шенген." Standart News Agency. 04 January 


16 “Границата ни с Турция ни спъна за Шенген." Standart News Agency. 

14 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

17 "Заливат ни нелегални от границата с Турция." Standart News 

Agency. 15 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

18 "Забележките по готовността на България за Шенген не били 

драматични." Дневник. 11 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

19 "МВР набеляза 21 мерки за Шенген." Труд. 1 February 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

20 "Цветанов: През март ще сме технически готови за Шенген." Труд. 


21 Ж. Колева, "Николай Младенов: Убедени сме, че ще сме готови за 

Шенген през март." Дневник. 13 January 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

22 "Премиерът: Една сграда има да измажем и сме готови за 

Шенген." Дневник. 2 February 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

23 "Румъния ни обвини за забавянето за Шенген." Standart News 

Agency 3 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

24 "Борисов: Прибързано ни атакуват за Шенген." Standart News 

Agency 15 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

25 Иво Ангелов, Евгени Генов, Красина Кръстева. "БСП: Какъв 

Шенген след всичко това?" Труд. 15 January 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

26 "РЗС скочи на Цветанов." Standart News Agency. 02 January 2011. 


36

27 "Германски политолози: Скандалът със СРС-тата ще се отрази на 

влизането ви в Шенген." Дневник. 21 January 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

28 "Посланикът на Норвегия: Подслушването в България се 

използва срещу политически опоненти." Дневник. 17 February 


29 "София се опитва да смекчи критичен доклад за Шенген." 

Дневник. 14 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

30 "Франция: Цяла Европа ще пострада от влизането на България в 

Шенген сега." Дневник. 20 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

31 "ФТ: Париж и Берлин няма да отстъпят за Шенген." Standart News 

Agency. 9 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

32 "Юдит Ланг: Положихте усилия за влизане в Шенген." Standart 

News Agency. 8 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

33 "България трябва да стане част от Шенген в най-скоро време, 

каза премиерът на Люксембург." Дневник. 8 September 2011. Date 

of access: 30/03/2012. 

34 "Чешкият премиер подкрепи членството на България в Шенген." 

Дневник. 4 October 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

35 "Има надежда за Шенген и преди октомври." Standard News Agency 


36 "Унгария предлага влизане в Шенген през март, но само по 

въздуха." Дневник. 21 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

37 "Сапатеро увери, че Испания вижда България в Шенген." Дневник. 

7 March 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

38 "Миграционният натиск на външните граници на ЕС намалял с 

9%." Труд. 16 November 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

39 "Борисов: България е изпълнила на 100% критериите за 

Шенген." Труд. онлайн 21 September 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

40 "Файненшъл таймс": Обвързването на Шенген и механизма за 

контрол е правилно." Дневник. 1 February 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

41 "Европарламентът гласува в полза на българското членство в 

Шенген." Дневник. 8 June 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

42 "Люксембург ще съдейства на България и Румъния за скорошно 

влизане в Шенген." Дневник. 15 March 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

43 Ж. Колева, "Отпадна възможна заплаха за Шенген." Дневник. 2 

May 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

44 "Полша: ЕС не изпълни обещанието си към България и Румъния 

за Шенген." Дневник. 22 September 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

45 "Европарламентът: България и Румъния не трябва да са 

заложници на популизма за Шенген." Дневник. 13 October 2011. 


37

46 "Чехия: Блокирането на шенгенското разширяване е вредно за 

солидарността в ЕС." Дневник. 26 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

47 "Европа пак ни попари за Шенген." Standart News Agency. 28 January 


48 "Няма да решават за Шенген през февруари." Standart News Agency. 


49 "Външното министерство: Очакваме дата за Шенген най-късно 

до края на годината." Дневник. 13 September 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

50 "България и Румъния настояват за коректно решение за 

Шенген." Дневник. 12 October 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

51 Ж. Колева, "София продължава да търси решение на въпроса 

"Шенген" до края на годината." Дневник. 8 November 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

52 Ж. Колева, "Влизането в Шенген се отлага." Дневник. 9 June 2011. 


53 "Франция прогнозира присъединяване на България и Румъния 

към Шенген в края на 2012 г." Дневник. 14 July 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

54 "България в Шенген - най-рано след година." Дневник. 26 September 


55 "Френският посланик не може да даде крайна дата за влизането в 

Шенген." Дневник. 29 March 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

56 "FT: България и Румъния отложени несправедливо, но правилно 

за Шенген." Standart News Agency. 1 February 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

57 "Евродепутати искат отлагане на българското и румънското 

влизане в Шенген." Дневник. 27 April 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

58 "Датски евродепутати: Копенхаген да не бърза с българското и 

румънското членство в Шенген." Дневник. 28 April 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

59 "Румънски министър: И Финландия ще гласува против 

разширяването на Шенген." Дневник. 21 September 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

60 "Финландия потвърди, че няма да подкрепи България за 

Шенген." Дневник. 21 September 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

61 Ж. Колева, "Техническите доклади за Шенген минаха на косъм." 

Дневник. 14 February 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

62"Последната проверка показала, че България е технически готова 

за Шенген." Дневник. 4 April 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2011. 

63 "Приключи техническата фаза по оценяването на България за 

Шенген." Дневник. 4 May 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

64 Ж. Колева, "Влизането в Шенген се отлага." Дневник. 9 June 2011. 


38

65 "Очаквано: Решението за присъединяване към Шенген се 

отлага." Дневник. 25 September 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

66 "Борисов: Очакваме през юли 2012 г. да сме изцяло в Шенген 

(обновена)." Дневник. 23 October 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

67 "Въздушната ни граница с Шенген може да падне от 25 март." 

Дневник. 12 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

68 Труд. "Цветанов в битка да ни пуснат в Шенген, Берлин ни 

подкрепя." Труд. 20 January 2012. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

69 "Кризата в еврозоната е минало." Standart News Agency. 29 January 


70 "Гонят с водни оръдия протест в Брюксел." Standart News Agency. 


71 "Еврозоната със спад на икономиката." Standart News Agency. 7 

January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

72 "Дянков: Търговията ни с Гърция колабира." Standart News Agency. 

3 November 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

73 "Безработица в Испания удари рекорд." Standart News Agency. 28 


74 "Португалия поиска спасителен пояс от ЕС." Standart News Agency. 

7 April 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

75 "БГ-икономиката бавно надига глава." Standart News Agency. 19 


76 "Българите са сред най-разочарованите в ЕС от доходите и 

здравеопазването." Дневник. 17 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

77 Светослав Метанов, Веселин Желев, Брюксел, Христо Николов. 

"Икономическият ръст 3,4% при среден 2,5% за Евросъюза." Труд. 


78 "Ройтерс: Рецесията нанесе удар на Борисов." Standart News Agency. 


79"Дянков: Щатите са по-зле от нас." Standart News Agency. 25 August 


80 Ганев, Димитър. "Търговията на България с ЕС запазва ръста си 

(обновена)." Дневник. 9 August 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

81 "Opешарски: Не виждам причини за фискален борд." Standart 

News Agency. 5 June 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

82 "Д. Иванов: Стабилността е за сметка на обедняването." Standart 

News Agency. 8 August 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

83 "Хърсев: Левът е най-сигурен." Standart News Agency. 24 August 


84 "Зюддойче цайтунг": България е отличник с финансовата си 

политика." Дневник. 25 July 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

85 "Българинът се кланя на левчето, не ще евро." Standart News 

Agency. 27 February 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

39

86 "Калфин: Ако не сме в Пакта за еврото, пак ще кандидатстваме за 

ЕС." Standart News Agency. 17 March 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

87 Кънчева, Диана. "Борисов: Няма да вдигаме никакви данъци." 

Stnadart News Agency 24 March 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

88 "Влизаме в пакта за еврото въпреки Дянков." Standart News Agency. 


89 "Дянков: Отлагаме еврото за 2015 г." Standart News Agency. 22 July 


90 "Доган пред форум за лидерството: България е на път да влезе в 

отбор "С" на ЕС." Дневник. 8 July 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

91 "Еврокомисията поиска от България да промени правилата си за 

ДДС." Труд. онлайн 27 October 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

92 "България и още 5 се присъединиха към пакта за еврото." Standart 

News Agency. 25 March 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

93 Антонов, Стефан. "Борисов: Членството в "Евро плюс" не ни 

задължава с вноски, няма да вдигаме и данък печалба." Дневник. 4 


94 "Даваме рамо на еврото при нужда." Standart News Agency. 30 


95 Антонов, Стефан."Борисов: Членството в "Евро плюс" не ни 



96 Антонов, Стефан. "България може да гарантира до 4.2 млрд. евро 

дълг за закъсали в еврозоната." Дневник. 30 May 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

97 Антонов, Стефан."Борисов: Членството в "Евро плюс" не ни 



98 "Борисов препоръча страните с голям дефицит да дават 

български пенсии." Дневник. 4 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

99 Кисьова, Мила. "Трайчо Трайков вярва в еврото." Standart News 

Agency. 6 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

100 "Кандидатстваме за еврото през есента." Standart News Agency. 


101 "Дянков: Еврозоната изчезва." Standart News Agency. 29 November 


102 "Симеон Дянков: Има голям шанс еврозоната да не съществува 

до 6 месеца." Дневник. 29 November 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

103 "Меркел: БГ жертви държат еврото стабилно." Standart News 

Agency. 2 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

104 "Калфин: Европа е на погрешен път за изход от кризата." Standart 

News Agency. 13 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

40

105 "Дянков: Еврозоната се стабилизира." Standart News Agency. 16 

December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

106 "Икономисти: Еврото няма да умре, но инвестирайте в левове." 

Standart News Agency. 7 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

107 Колева, Юлиана. "България ще подкрепи пакта за еврото." 

Дневник. 24 March 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

108 "Искаме бонус за ниския дефицит." Standart News Agency. 8 December 


109 "Борисов пред конгреса на ЕНП: Европа да стимулира 

отличниците, да не ставаме социалисти." Дневник. 8 December 


110 "Борисов пита Брюксел защо помага само на страните с 

дефицит." Труд. 13 October 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

111 "Борисов: Брюксел взе от нас идеята за "златното правило"." 

Standart News Agency. 9 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

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еврофондовете от България." Дневник. 19 December 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

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дисциплинираните в ЕС." Дневник. 15 December 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

114 "България е сред страните извън еврозоната, които ще 

подкрепят фискалния пакт." Дневник. 9 December 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

115 "Източноевропейски държави не искат да плащат за 

спасяването на Гърция и Ирландия." Дневник. 16 March 2011. Date 


116 "Борисов обяви, че България няма да плаща за проблемите на 

еврозоната." Дневник. 27 October 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

117 "Борисов: Няма да плащаме на богати недисциплинирани 

държави(стенограма)." Труд. онлайн 23 December 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

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Труд. онлайн 19 May 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

119 "Ройтерс: Властта да прати още корумпирани зад решетките." 

Standart News Agency. 3 May 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

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остава до постигане на всички цели." Дневник. 12 September 2011. 


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се обвързва с Шенген." Дневник. 12 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

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митническите измами." Дневник. 18 November 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

41

123 Гутсузян, Мишел. "Доклад на Европейската комисия:Доклад на 

Европейската комисия: Пазарът на Труда в България продължава 

да се влошава." Дневник. 30 June 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

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Дневник. 5 January 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

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за догонване на развитите в ЕС." Дневник. 16 March 2011. Date of 

access: 30/03/2012. 

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румънци." Труд. онлайн 15 December 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

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спецове." Труд. 14 July 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

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ЕС за техни работници." Дневник. 13 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

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българи до 2012." Дневник. 25 October 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

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работници след 2013 г." Дневник. 25 November 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

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български работници." Дневник. 5 December 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

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г." Дневник. 29 December 2011. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

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и румънци." Дневник. 20 December 2011. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

134 Гутсузян, Мишел. "Ограниченията за български работници в 

Англия и Холандия ще останат до 2014 г." Дневник. 25 October 


42

43 

DENMARK 

By Nikki Vukasovic 

Ethnic composition: Scandinavian, Inuit, 

Faroese, German, Turkish, Iranian, 

Somali 





BACKGROUND: 

Denmark became a member of the EEC (now the 

EU) in 1973 during the first enlargement of the community. 

1 A referendum on the Maastricht Treaty was held in 

Denmark in June 1992 and was rejected by the Danish voters. 

2 In response to the outcome of the referendum, in December 

1992 an agreement was made in Edinburgh, at a 

European Council meeting that granted Denmark four exceptions 

to the Maastricht treaty including citizenship, 

economic and monetary union, defense policy and justice 

and home affairs. 3 After the agreement was made, Denmark 

ratified the Maastricht Treaty in May 1993. Denmark 

became president of the EU on January 1, 2012. 4 


Berlingske 

www.b.dk 

Berlingske (formerly Berlingske Tidende), is one of the oldest 

newspapers on the continent, and has a daily circulation 

of 152,000, making it the most read newspaper in 

Denmark. 5 The newspaper is considered to have a centreright 

political alignment. 6 

Jyllands Posten 

www.jp.dk 

Jyllands Posten is regarded to be one of the most highly 

read, daily newspapers in Denmark. 7 According to Presseurop 

however, the daily circulation of the paper is 148,000, 

making it the second most read. It is considered to have a 

liberal political alignment. 8 However, the newspaper is also 

considered to be conservative by other media sources. 9 In 

2004, Jyllands Posten was accused of being antiimmigration, 

especially towards Muslim migrants after 

publishing cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad. 10 

44

Politiken 

www.politiken.dk 

Politiken is the third most read daily paid newspaper in 

Denmark, 11 with a daily circulation of 108,000. 12 In 2010, 

Politiken won the European Newspaper Award, a design 

award for European newspapers. 13 Politiken is considered 

to be a centre-left newspaper. 14 Politiken is owned by the 

same group that owns Jyllands Posten, a rival newspaper 

that is considered to have a liberal-conservative political 

alignment. 15 

BT 

www.bt.dk 

BT is a tabloid newspaper that is quite popular in Denmark, 

with a daily circulation of 152,000. 16 Due to the tabloid nature 

of the publication, it favours sensational news stories 

and lacks any real analysis of current issues. This daily 

evening paper is owned by the Berlingske Officin, the same 

company that publishes Berlingske, and as a result it also 

exhibits centre-right political views. 17 

FINDINGS: 

Denmark within the EU 

- Denmark could possibly lose another seat in the European 

Parliament reducing Denmark’s influence in the EU 

and diminishing their total number of seats to 12. Less 

than two years ago Denmark had 14 seats. As more countries 

are added to the EU in the future Denmark can expect 

to lose more seats. Morten Løkkegaard, a Venstre 

MEP, says that Denmark cannot be deprived of any more 

influence and disagrees with the mathematical model 

used to determine the number of seats a country has. He 

says that 15 of the EU’s small and medium countries will 

lose seats while the larger countries will get even more 

seats in parliament. The current system favours larger 

45

countries at the expense of small and medium countries 

including Denmark. 18 

- On 25 March 2011 reports indicated that the EU is at a 

real risk of disintegrating if it cannot display solid internal 

and external cooperation. The lack of cooperation can 

be seen in the EU’s approach to recent events in Libya 

“apart from France and Great Britain, most of the EU 

countries have failed to defend humanitarian principles in 

the country.” Leading EU countries have distanced themselves 

from the situation and Germany did not vote in the 

UN Security Council. The author argues that “indecision 

shows the disposition of a disunited Europe” and further 

that “it is a sign of infirmity in European cooperation if, in 

the midst of a crisis, we are unable to mobilize the political 

will to help a neighboring external country, and bind 

ourselves internally to a sustainable policy for economic 

growth.” 19 

Border Control/Immigration Policies: 

- Denmark’s border control plans meant to keep out criminals 

and illegal immigrants has put the country at odds 

with the EU who has said that the border controls are in 

violation of the Schengen Agreement. Denmark’s strict 

immigration legislation also puts it at odds with the rest 

of the EU. 

- A ruling from the EU court, known as the Zambrano ruling, 

could have a major impact on immigration policy in 

EU countries including Denmark as reported on 26 March 

2011. Danes are being urged to apply again for family 

reunification even if their previous requests were rejected. 

The ruling now makes it unlawful for a EU member 

country to reject residence and work permits for foreign 

nationals who support a child that has EU citizenship. 

It is possible that this ruling could affect several of 

the regulations passed by the Liberal-Conservative government 

aimed at restricting immigration. Lars Kyhnau 

Hansen, the spokesperson for Marriage Without Borders, 

estimates that since 2002 at least 10,000 Danes have had 

their family reunification applications rejected. 20 

46

- In an article from 20 March 2011, it was asserted that the 

claim that the ECJ frequently makes rulings with respect 

for the sovereignty of member countries has no basis in 

reality. The recent Zambrano ECJ ruling is a positive step 

for families who have kept apart due to Danish immigration 

legislation. This legislation dictated that Danish citizens 

could not bring a foreign spouse into the country unless 

stringent conditions were met leading to some Danes 

moving to Sweden or Germany. 21 

- Later on in June 2011 the media reported on criminal 

gangs from Eastern Europe making the Danish people 

fearful and as a result increasing number of Danes insist 

they must be kept out of the country. Moreover, border 

control prevents Denmark from being invaded by Germany 

according to some who say Germany’s protests that 

border control violates the spirit of the EU serves as evidence 

that Germany has malicious plans. However, Denmark’s 

prosperity is linked with open borders. Competition 

and openness are the reasons why Denmark today is 

a leading cultural and artistic nation. The policies of 

present bourgeois-liberal government of Denmark are 

not compatible with the desire for freedom that led to the 

collapse of the Soviet Union. The author believes that the 

next step of the government may be to leave the EU entirely 

which would cause the krone’s value to free-fall and 

eliminate Danish goodwill. 22 

- The Danish government had enough votes to go ahead 

with a plan for permanent border control, as reported on 

16 June 2011. This move is said to send a message to the 

rest of the EU about how “open” Denmark wants to be. 

The Danish said the purpose of the border controls is to 

“prevent eastern European gangs from wreaking havoc in 

our country”. The permanent border controls are not 

compatible with the Schengen Agreement, which guarantees 

free movement of people and goods according to critics. 

Denmark bowed to criticism with then Minister of 

Finance Claus Frederiksen acknowledging that the border 

plans had hurt Denmark’s image internationally. 

- On 1 July 2011 it was reported that Denmark’s government 

is planning to introduce permanent customs border 

47

controls despite backlash from Germany and the European 

Commission that the move will endanger the Schengen 

Agreement on mobility within the EU. Denmark’s 

government has said the border controls comply with the 

Schengen Agreement and that they will present each 

phase of the plan to the EU Commission for comment. 23 

- Also on 1 July 2011, the media indicated that the EU 

Commission will examine Denmark’s border plans. The 

commission as guardian of EU treaties will look into 

whether Denmark’s border plans are in line with European 

legislation. The border plans were developed by the 

Danish People’s Party, a right wing political party. 24 

The Eurozone 

- Denmark’s citizens have repeatedly voted no to joining 

the Eurozone and this left some of the country’s leaders 

and those who support joining the Eurozone fearful that 

they will be sidelined when economic policies created to 

stem the debt crisis are created. However, consensus is 

that Denmark’s presidency of the EU in 2012 creates an 

opportunity for cooperation and collaboration between 

countries that use the euro and those who do not. 

- A reporting on 10 February 2011 stated that European 

Commissioner Connie Hedegaard indicated that it is time 

for Denmark to commit fully to EU membership by adopting 

the common currency. She says that without being a 

member of the Eurozone Denmark will not have a say in 

the development of new economic policies. Voters in 

Denmark have repeatedly voted against joining the monetary 

union. 25 

- On 27 September 2011 the media asserted that a referendum 

on Denmark adopting the Euro is unlikely after a 

poll conducted by Danske Bank showing 50.6 per cent 

against joining the euro and 22.5 per cent in favor. There 

has been increased opposition to joining the monetary 

union in response to the debt crisis. 26 

- On 31 October 2011 news reports stated that Angela 

Merkel had responded admirably to the debt crisis and 

acted in solidarity with vulnerable EU countries; Germany 

48

should not be the focus of conspiracy theories or criticism. 

A German Europe is no threat and Germany is the 

only country capable of solving the European debt crisis 

according to the author “Merkel maps out the path on a 

battlefield where most have lost their sense of direction.” 

27 

- In November 2011, Danish Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmid 

met with German Chancellor Angela Merkel to 

discuss Denmark’s upcoming presidency of the EU. A media 

reporting from 18 November asserted that Merkel believes 

Thorning-Schmidt is well suited to “build a bridge 

between EU countries who use the Euro and those who 

do not. Merkel also said that Denmark’s status as a euro 

outsider should not diminish the prospect of a successful 

Danish EU presidency. During the meeting Thorning- 

Schmid stated that Denmark would not go ahead with 

planned border controls. 

- On 9 December 2011 it was reported that Denmark is 

seeking to be a part of any new agreement that the Eurozone 

countries adopt to try to tackle the debt crisis. Denmark 

is concerned that any treaty changes may create a 

“two speed Europe” with non-Eurozone countries on the 

outside. There is concern that this could weaken Denmark’s 

influence in the EU with Eva Kjer Hansen, EU issues 

spokesperson for Venstre (The largest Danish political 

party) stating “We are now seeing the consequences of 

Denmark having an exception to the euro as we are not 

amongst the core countries. Splitting Europe into different 

groups could weaken Denmark's influence.” 28 

- A report on 14 December 2011 indicated that the rise of 

euro skepticism in Denmark is a new phenomenon. Increased 

criticism of the euro and European integration is 

a result of the financial crisis where even core euro countries 

did not keep their financial houses in order. According 

to critics, the European Union has spent too much 

time engaged in power struggles and treaty discussions 

when it should have been working to liberalize their markets. 

As a consequence, the 40 billion dollars that Denmark 

may have to add to the EU crisis fund will hook 

Denmark to a doomed European project. The author does 

49

not agree with the Eurosceptics and believes that Denmark 

would have more to lose by going alone then by assuming 

their share of responsibility for European integration. 

29 


The relationship between Denmark and the EU was 

generally positive but became strained at certain periods 

due to Denmark’s border control plans and their strict immigration 

legislation. Denmark planned to implement border 

controls on the borders it shares with Germany and 

Sweden. Denmark claimed the border controls were 

needed to keep out criminals from Eastern Europe, but the 

EU felt the controls violated the Schengen Agreement. The 

country eventually decided not to go ahead with the controls 

but its reputation within the EU was already tarnished. 

An ECJ decision in March 2011 that determined 

that a non-EU citizen who is the parent of a EU citizen has 

the right to reside within an EU member state and also obtain 

a work permit. This brought negative attention to 

Denmark’s strict immigration policies. Critics in the EU and 

within Denmark believe that the state’s policies are barriers 

to family reunification, which has forced many Danes 

to live in neighboring Sweden or Germany in order to remain 

with their spouses. 

Denmark’s policies may sometimes conflict with 

the mandate of the EU but the relationship is usually positive 

and beneficial for each party. Maintaining influence in 

the Union is important to Denmark and they are concerned 

that the financial crisis will create a two speed Europe with 

non-Eurozone countries like Denmark left outside of any 

new economic or treaty discussions. Denmark is also concerned 

that the loss of seats in the European parliament 

due to further enlargement will decrease their influence. 

Domestically, the financial crisis has led some 

Danes to believe that to maintain influence Denmark must 

fully commit to the union by adopting the euro. However, 

Danish citizens are opposed to adopting the euro and the 

financial crisis makes joining the Eurozone even less at- 

50

tractive. The financial crisis has also led to a rise in euroskepticism 

within the country and some citizens are resentful 

of contributing money to the bailout fund for a union 

they believe is doomed to fail. Denmark has always 

been reluctant to fully commit to European integration and 

it will be interesting to see how involved Denmark will be 

in policy and treaty discussions as Europe attempts to recover 

from its recent difficulties. Denmark’s EU presidency 

in the first half of 2012 will most likely guarantee that 

Denmark will have some influence in upcoming discussions. 

51

1 "European Countries-Denmark." Europa.eu. Date of access: 

09/02/2012. 

2 "Denmark: EMU Opt-out Clause." Europa.eu. Date of access: 

06/02/2012. 

3 ibid. 

4 Acher, John. "Denmark as EU President Will Seek to Keep UK Along| 

Reuters." Reuters. 30 December 2011. Date of access: 6/02/2012. 

5 “Source Profile: Berlingske Tidende.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

15/03/2012. 

6 "Source Profile: Berlingske Tidende." Presseurop. Date of access: 

09/02/2012. 

7 Rue, Adam. "Kontrollerede Oplagstal 1. Halvår 2011." Danske Dagblades 

Forening. 22 November 2011. Date of access: 5/02/2012. 

8 "Source Profile: Jyllands-Posten." Presseurop. Date of access: 

9/02/2012. 

9 Anderson, John Ward. "Cartoons of Prophet Met With Outrage." Washington 

Post. 31 January 2006. Date of access: 9/02/2012. 

10 ibid. 

11 Rue, Adam. "Kontrollerede Oplagstal 1. Halvår 2011." Danske Dagblades 

Forening. 22 November 2011. Date of access: 5/02/2012. 

12 “Source Profile: Politiken.” Presseurop. Date of access: 15/03/2012. 

13 "Office for Newspaper Design Trends 2010." Office for Newspaper Design. 


14 "Source Profile: Politiken." Presseurop. Date of access: 9/02/2012. 

15 ibid. 

16 “Source Profile: Berlingske Tidende.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

15/03/2012. 

17 ibid. 

18 ”Danmark Risikerer Igen at Miste Et EU-sæde." B.T. 10 March 2011. 


19 "EDITORIAL: Disintegration." Politiken. 25 March 2011. Date of access: 

16/01/2012. 

20 “Danes Urged to Challenge Immigration Law." Jyllands-Posten. 16 


21 Vesterdorf, Peter J. "Løse påstande om EU-Domstolen.” Berlingskea. 20 

March. 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

22 Henningsen, Bernd. "Danmark for danskerne.” Berlingskea.14 June 


23 “Govt. Border Plan on Track." Politiken. 1 July 2011. Date of access: 

16/01/2012. 

24 “EU vil undersøge dansk grænsekontrol.” B.T. 1 July 2011. Date of 

access: 16/01/2012. 

25 “Euro Discussion Pushed Back into Limelight." Jyllands-Posten. 2 February 


26 “Danes Firmly against Euro." Politiken. 27 September 2011. Date of 

access: 16/01/2012. 

52

27 Isherwood, Julian. "EDITORIAL: A German Europe Is No Threat." Politiken. 

31 October 2011. Date of access: 16/01/2012. 

28 Stanners, Peter. "Denmark May Join inside Lane of Two-speed Europe." 

Jyllands-Posten. 9 December 2011. Date of access: 16/01/2012. 

29 Jensen, Tom. "Borgerlig EU-ballade." Berlingskea. 14 December 2011. 


53

FRANCE 

By Emily Barrette 

Ethnic composition: Celtic and Latin 

with Teutonic, Slavic, North African, Indochinese, 

Basque minorities 

Population: 62,814,233 




54

BACKGROUND: 

France is the second largest country in the EU, 

with a population of just over 62 million. 1 France’s 

economy is the second largest in Europe and important 

sectors include agricultural exports, tourism, machinery, 

automobiles and chemicals. 2 The official language 

is French, but many regional languages are also spoken. 

France is a unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic. 

The President is Nicolas Sarkozy and the Prime 

Minister François Fillion. 3 

France was a founding member of the ECSC in 

April 1951, a precursor institution the EU. France has 

played an important role in the development and expansion 

of the EU: Franco-German cooperation has 

been essential to furthering European economic integration. 

4 


Le Figaro 

www.lefigaro.fr 

Le Figaro is a national daily newspaper founded in 

Paris in 1826. It is the oldest daily newspaper in France 

and is the largest of the three main dailies, with a paid 

daily circulation of just over 332,000. 5 Le Figaro is a 

conservative paper that generally supports the EU. It is 

also a supporter of the current French President, Nicolas 

Sarkozy. 6 

Le Monde: 

www.lemonde.fr 

Le Monde is the second largest main newspaper in 

France, with a paid daily circulation of just over 

322,000. 7 The newspaper was founded in 1944 in Paris 

and is known to have centre-left tendencies. 8 Its website 

receives over 40 million hits monthly and is the 

most popular online news source in France. 9 

55

Libération 

www.liberation.fr 

The third quality daily newspaper in France, Libération 

was founded in 1973 by Jean-Paul Sartre and is a 

staunchly left-wing newspaper. 10 In 2005, 40% of the 

newspaper was bought by Édouard de Rothschild, who 

took a very active role in the paper, which prompted 

several leading journalists to leave the publication. 

Libération has an average daily circulation of 115,000 

copies. 11 

FINDINGS: 


- The French media was critical of the EU’s inability to 

agree on a solution to the Eurozone crisis. 12 

- In September 2011, the media reported that France 

agreed to push for increased budgetary discipline, a 

system of stricter controls on national deficits, and 

automatic sanctions on member states. 13 

- The media reported on continuing disagreement between 

France and Germany over whether the new accord 

would affect all EU member states or only the 

states in the Eurozone. 14 

- The media also focused on a disagreement within the 

EU about whether there should be a club of ‘super- 

Europeans’ (countries with a AAA credit rating), who 

would commit to a stability and growth pact. 15 

- The media reported that throughout these negotiations, 

France positioned itself strongly in favour of 

‘solidarité’ among EU countries. 16 

- France does not favour providing the EU with the 

powers to intervene in the domestic economic affairs 

of its member states, whereas Germany and the Netherlands 

do. 17 

- With the exception of the UK, all member states at the 

European Council meeting on 9 December 2011, 

56

agreed to a process of automatic sanctions for states 

whose government budget deficit exceeded 3% of 

their GDP. 18 

French-German Relations and the EU 

- Germany and France cooperated early in the year 

when they declared a competitiveness pact. 

o This was interpreted by the media as a sign of cooperation 

and compromise between the two states 

as it presented a united front vis-à-vis the euro crisis. 

19 

o However, there was some scepticism, about 

whether or not France was truly an equal partner 

in the pact. 20 

- Later in the year, there were diverging opinions between 

Germany and France on how to properly address 

the euro crisis. 

o There was a difference of opinion on the use of 

European Emergency Funds for bailouts. 21 

o Berlin was in favour of sanctions, while Paris promoted 

solidarity. 22 

o Germany wanted to reform EU treaties, which 

would have affected all 27 Member States. France 

was sceptical about treaty reform plan, and instead 

favoured “un accord plus restraint entre les pays de 

l’euro zone qui souhaiteraient aller d’avant.” [A 

more restrained agreement amongst euro zone 

countries that are willing to move forward]. 23 

- In December, leading up to the European Council 

meeting, conflicting interpretations of Franco-German 

cooperation were forwarded by the French media. 

The following headlines from the December 6 newspapers 

indicate several contradictions: 

o “Amitié, convergence, solidité.’’ [Friendship, convergence, 

solidity.] 24 

o “La France et l’Allemagne ‘solidares’ dans la tempête.” 

[France and Germany “solidarity” in the 

storm.] 25 

57

o “Les divergences entre Paris et Berlin restent bien 

réelles.” [The divergences between Paris and Berlin 

remain very real.] 26 

o “Deux cultures politiques qui s’opposent.” [Two opposing 

political cultures.] 27 

- The meeting concluded with France and Germany 

agreeing to move forward, and both sides compromising 

on their initial positions. The media portrayed 

Germany as being more successful than France in 

achieving its goals. 28 

Renegotiating the Schengen Agreement 

- Tensions arose between France and Italy over an influx 

of migrants into France from Tunisia and Libya, 

via the Italian border. 

- France revoked the Schengen Agreement, refusing the 

admittance of Tunisian and Libyan migrants, even 

though they were in position of a temporary residential 

permit. 

- France called for a review of the Schengen Agreement. 

o This position was defended in Le Figaro, which described 

it as “La juste réponse au défi migratoires.” 

[The just response to the migration challenge]. 29 

o Libération was critical of the French government’s 

position, and cited several members of the French 

Socialist Party who argued that the move is a 

threat to the European right of freedom of movement. 

30 

- Nicolas Sarkozy, quoted in a Le Monde on April 26, 

stated: “C’est justement parce que nous croyons en 

Schengen que nous voulons un renforcement de Schengen.” 

[It is precisely because we believe in Schengen 

that we want to reinforce Schengen.”] 31 

- Viviane Reding, the European Commissioner for Justice, 

Fundamental Rights, and Citizenship, and Cecilia 

Malmström, the European Commissioner for Home 

Affairs, wrote an op-ed piece in Le Monde, criticizing 

France for threatening a fundamental principle of the 

EU. 32 

58

- The EU agreed to consider revising Schengen. This 

was interpreted as an indication of France’s ability to 

influence EU policy making in Le Monde. 33 


The Eurozone crisis received a lot of attention 

in the French media in 2011. Overall, the major print 

newspapers refrained from alarmist reporting, and 

struck a tone that was pragmatic, yet slightly optimistic. 

The role of France and of President Nicolas Sarkozy 

in responding and solving the crisis was stressed 

throughout the year. In particular, the French government 

and the media picked up on the theme of solidarity, 

which perhaps best describes the French position 

towards the Eurozone crisis and its resolution. An article 

from Le Figaro, on October 28 quotes Sarkozy: 

“Nous avons une obligation morale à l’endroit des pays 

membres de la zone euro et de l’Union Européene. 

L’Europe, c’est une civilization, une famille et une solidarité.” 

[We have a moral obligation towards the member 

states of the Eurozone and the EU. Europe is a civilization, 

a family, and a solidarity.] 34 In conjunction with 

this position of solidarity, France also opposed reforms 

that would provide the EU with greater power to intervene 

in the domestic affairs of member states with regards 

to their finances. Although France’s position on 

how to solve the Eurozone crisis differed at times from 

that of the EU and other member states, the media coverage 

of the economic crisis emphasized a willingness 

for compromise and an acceptance of the different 

opinions within the EU. 

Another major theme in the French media dealt 

with the relationship between France and Germany, the 

two largest economies of the Eurozone. The media depicted 

this relationship in different ways throughout 

the year. For the most part, the French media emphasized 

the cooperation between the two countries. On 

several occasions divergent views between Paris and 

Berlin were noted, and in some cases, the nature of the 

59

elationship explicitly questioned. This is apparent in 

articles such as the following, which appeared in 

Libération on November 25, “La France doit-elle imiter 

l’Allemagne?” [Should France be imitating Germany?] 

and on December 6, “France le lièvre, Allemagne la tortue.” 

[France the hare, Germany the tortoise.] 35 The levels 

of criticism varied depending on the political leaning 

of the newspaper, but even the right-leaning Le Figaro 

was at times critical of Franco-German cooperation. 

36 In spite of these critical reports on the relationship 

between France and Germany, the cooperation 

between the two countries emerged as the dominant 

narrative across all three major newspapers. Overall 

the relationship between the two countries was portrayed 

in a positive light, and as yielding positive results. 

This was illustrated in an article from Le Figaro 

on December 10, in which the term ‘Merkozy’ was used 

to refer to the cooperation between the leaders of 

France and Germany: “Le couple ‘Merkozy’ sort gagnant 

du marathon à Bruxelles.” [The Merkozy couple leave as 

winners of the marathon in Brussels.] 37 Franco-German 

cooperation was also praised following the European 

Council meeting on 9 December 2011, during which the 

UK withdrew from plans aimed at increasing the centralization 

of the financial union. 

A secondary theme worth noting is the effort 

made by France to renegotiate the Schengen agreement 

after an influx of North African migrants arrived in 

France via Italy, as a consequence of the Arab Spring. 

France’s criticism of the Schengen agreement was reported 

favourably by the right-wing media, and was 

criticized by the left. Overall, the media coverage of this 

event suggests that France does not support the EU unequivocally, 

and is confident and willing to voice its 

criticism. Although most of the criticism in this case 

was aimed directly at Italy, rather than at the EU, this 

case is indicative of France’s position as a leader of the 

EU, and of its confidence to push its agenda forward, be 

critical, and propose reforms. 

60

1 "France Country Profile." BBC News. Date of access: 20/01/2012. 

2 "The World Factbook: France." CIA. Date of access: 20/01/2012. 

3 "France Country Profile." BBC News. Date of access: 20/01/2012. 

4 ibid. 

5 Office de Justification de la Diffusion. Date of access: 20/01/2012. 

6 "Source Profile: Le Figaro." Presseurop. Date of access: 

20/01/2012. 


8 "Source Profile: Le Monde." Presseurop. Date of access: 

20/01/2012. 

9 ibid. 

10 "Source Profile: Libération." Presseurop. Date of access: 

20/01/2012. 


12 Prudhomme, Cécile, et Marie de Vergès. “Euro: les causes d’une 

tempête qui n’en finit plus.” Le Monde. 13 July 2011.Date of access: 

10/02/2012.. 

De Vergès, Marie. “La restructuration de la dette grecque, le scénario 

qui divise l’Europe.” Le Monde. 19 May 2011. Date of access: 

10/02/2012. 

13 Cheyvialle, Anne. “La France fait un geste pour durcir la discipline 

budgétaire de l’UE.” Le Figaro. 03 September 2011. Date of access: 

13/01/2012. 

14 Saint-Paul, Patrick. “Un pacte de stability pour sauver l’euro.” Le 

Figaro. 28 November 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012. 

15 ibid. 

16 Lachèvre, Cyrille. “Paris demande la transparence à Athènes.” Le 

Figaro. 01 October 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012. 

17 Mével, Jean-Jacques. “L’UE salue l’avancée du débat Européen.” Le 

Figaro. 03 December 2011. Date of access : 10/02/2012. 

18 Visot, Marie. “D’abord des sanctions avant d’envisager une solidarité.” 

Le Figaro. 09 December 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012. 

19 Gallen, Claire. “Paris et Berlin défendent leur pacte.” Le Figaro. 05 

February 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012.. 

20 ibid. 

21 Visot, Marie. “Banques: Tensions à la veille de la rencontre Merkel-Sarkozy.” 

Le Figaro. 08 October 2011. Date of access: 

13/01/2012. 



23 Barluet, Alain. “UE: Sarkozy tente de rassurer Cameron.” Le Figaro. 

03 December 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012. 

24 Jaigu, Charles. “Euro l’accord de l’Élysée.” Le Figaro. 06 December 


25 Visot, Marie. “La France et l’Allemagne ‘solidares’ dans la tempête.” 


61

26 Semo, Marc. “Paris le lièvre, Berlin la tortue.” Libération. 06 December 


27 Semo, Marc. “Paris le lièvre, Berlin la tortue.” Libération. 06 December 



Le Figaro. 09 December 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012.. 

29 Thréard, Yves. “La juste réponse au défi migratoires.” Le Figaro. 

26 April 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012 

30 Forcari, Christophe. “Schengen: l’exécutif tente de calmer le jeu.” 

Libération. 25 April 2011.Date of access: 13/01/2012. 

31 “La France et l’Italie favorables à “des modifications” de l’accord 

Schengen.” Le Monde. 26 April 2011. Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

32 Malmström, Cecilia, and Viviane Reding. “L’Europe protégera sa 

plus grande réussite: le droit à la libre circulation.” Le Monde. 06 


33 “Bruxelles propose une revision des règles de l’espace Schengen.” 

Le Monde. 04 May 2011. Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

34 Lachèvre, Cyrille. “Paris demande la transparence à Athènes.” Le 

Figaro. 01 October 2011. Date of access: 13/01/2012. 

35 “La France doit-elle imiter l’Allemagne?” Libération. 25 November 


Semo, Marc. “Paris le lièvre, Berlin la tortue.” Libération. 6 December 


36 Gallen, Claire, and Charles Jaigu. “Euro: Paris et Berlin défendent 

leur pacte.” Le Figaro. 05 February 2011. Date of access: 

13/01/2012.. 

37 Jaigu, Charles. “Le couple ‘Merkozy’ sort gagnant du marathon de 

Bruxelles.” Le Figaro. 10 December 2011. Date of access: 

13/01/2012. 

62

63 

GERMANY 

By Steven Mantifel 

Ethnic composition: German 91.5%, Turkish 

2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Greek, 

Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, and 

Spanish) 





BACKGROUND: 

Germany has the largest population in Europe with 

81 million inhabitants. 1 The country is an economic powerhouse 

as the fifth largest economy in the world, which 

is based mainly on exports of automobiles, high-end technologies, 

chemicals and pharmaceuticals. 2 The official language 

is German but there are varying dialects spoken 

throughout the 16 Länder (states). The state is structured 

as a Federal Republic with a President, as the Head of State 

and a Chancellor, Angela Merkel, as the Head of Government. 

Germany was a founding member of the ECSC in 

April 1951, which set the groundwork for the establishment 

of the modern-day EU. The creation of the ECSC was 

based on the principle that economic development could 

be better achieved at the supranational level. In the past 

year, Germany has remained a leading member in the EU, 

ensuring that economic cohesion is maintained. 3 


Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 

www.faz.net 

The Frankfurt General Newspaper is a national daily German 

newspaper founded in 1949. It is based in Frankfurt 

and has a paid circulation of just over 360,000 reaching 

120 countries. 4 The organization has more than 300 reporters 

and 40 foreign correspondents. 5 The paper is 

known for its centre-right slant. The Frankfurter Allgemeine 

Zeitung maintains a regularly updated website that 

receives more than 3.51 million visitors per month. 6 

Süddeutsche Zeitung 

www.sueddeutsche.de 

The “South German Newspaper” is a well-respected daily, 

based in Munich. The Süddeutsche Zeitung has a paid daily 

circulation of over 430,000 and a readership of over 1.4 

64

million. 7 It maintains an up to date website with 455,000 

users per month. 8 Of its readership: 58% are between the 

ages of 20 and 49; 66% have a higher education degree; 

and 51% have a net household income of over €3,000 per 

month. 9 In terms of political orientation, despite being 

based in the conservative state of Bavaria the paper has a 

left-of-centre slant. 

Die Zeit 

www.zeit.de 

“The Times” in English is a weekly German newspaper 

founded in 1946 with about 503,000 paid subscriptions 

and above 2 million readers, making it the top weekly paper 

in Germany. 10 It is highly respected for its quality journalism 

and is known for its left-of-centre slant. Die Zeit 

maintains a frequently updated website which had 16.5 

million visits in 2010. 11 

FINDINGS: 


The Competitiveness Pact 

- On January 18 th, 2011 Merkel (Chancellor of Germany), 

Schäuble (German Federal Minister of Finance), Westerwelle 

(German Foreign Minister) and Brüderle (German 

Federal Minister of Economics and Technology) met to 

discuss the transformation of the EMU. There was much 

internal debate within the German government and according 

to Die Zeit the rescue of the euro was dependent 

upon German leadership. 12 

- At the beginning of the year Merkel suggested to the EU 

the use of a “Competitiveness Pact”, designed following 

the framework of the German Constitution. The pact 

would alter such things as the age of retirement and inflation 

linked wages. 13 

- The increased integration of the German economy into 

the EU became increasingly unpopular in Germany. The 

Germans are in favour of economic integration with the 

65

EU; however, believe that each state should maintain a 

degree of control. 14 

- At the March 2011 Summit, despite fierce lobbying by 

Merkel, the “Competitiveness Pact” was only partially 

adopted and used by the Member States in a non-binding 

letter of intent. 15 

- After the Summit in March 2011, the Chancellor faced the 

dilemma of choosing between the wishes of the Eurozone 

states and the expectations of the German public. 16 

- It was decided that the ESM would replace the EFSF, by 

mid 2013. The ministers also increased the nominal 

amount of the new crisis fund to €700 billion, for which 

the German capital share is 27.1 percent. The German 

guarantee for the ESM is 27.1 percent of €620 billion, or 

about €168 billion. 17 

European Financial Stability Facility 

- It became apparent that there was a need for a new funding 

package. The EU and Germany both agree that Greek 

solvency would be calamitous The European share of the 

new aid package is expected to take over the EFSF. The 

total size of the new program is 60 to 70 billion euro. The 

aid would come from the EU funded EFSF. The Germans 

favour this because it would not require ratification in 

their national parliament; however many EU countries 

are opposed to this because of the forfeiture of power to 

the EU. 18 19 The Greeks will have to privatize many of 

their public assets in order to raise capital to pay back 

loans as well as reduce public expenditure. 

20 21 

- Merkel and Sarkozy met in Berlin ahead of a second 

summit on the Greek crisis to reach an agreement. While 

Merkel wanted private creditors involved in the EFSF, 

Sarkozy did not as he was worried that it could damage 

French banks. 22 

- At a meeting in Paris, Merkel and Sarkozy proposed the 

creation of a European economic government to EU President 

Van Rompuy; this proposal advocated that Eurozone 

countries meet twice a year to vote on economic policy 

issues. According to Merkel and Sarkozy, there was a 

clear need for financial and economic policy integration 

66

of the Eurozone countries. It was also suggested that the 

EU Commission should have more influence in the use of 

European Structural Funds. In addition to these recommendations, 

they opposed the introduction of common 

Eurozone bonds. 23 

- The German President, Christian Wulff criticized the 

ECB’s direct purchase of bonds, stating that this practice 

would only be justified if authorities fail to deal with extensive 

purchases on the secondary market. It is also a 

concern that the German Finance Minister has advocated 

the expansion of the powers of the EFSF. Critics see this 

potential expansion as encroachment on the right of national 

parliaments to determine their domestic budgets. 24 

25 26 

- Germany rejected the Eurobond proposal because the 

bonds were likely to have a negative impact on Germany’s 

credit rating, thus leading to higher interest rates. Some 

Eurobond proponents argue that bankruptcies and the 

breakup of the Eurozone would cost Germany significant- 

67 

ly more. 

27 28 

- The dispute over the tightening of the Stability and 

Growth Pact was overcome and an agreement was 

reached. The Parliament is to waive the quasi-automatic 

imposition of sanctions against financially unsound Euro 

countries. In return, Member States will agree to sanctions 

that must be supported in the future by only a simple 

majority of the EU states. 29 

- The EFSF reform was officially approved in Parliament 

and is now a company under Luxembourg law. The owners 

of the legal company are the countries of the Euro and 

their ownership is based upon a private contract between 

the participating governments. The fund is intended as a 

temporary entity until 2013. After 2013 the ESM permanent 

aid fund will be launched. An international treaty between 

Eurozone countries will establish the ESM. All of 

this is in conjunction with debates on the reform of EU 

treaties that would allow the Commission more rights to 

monitor the economic and budgetary policies of the 

Member States. 30

- Over the weekend of 22 October 2011 the EU held another 

emergency meeting for the negotiations of a “comprehensive 

solution” to the sovereign debt crisis. Merkel 

stressed that this process took time because of its complexity 

and that another meeting would occur within the 

week. In a report from the IMF, ECB, and Commission, it 

was stated that Athens needed €252 billion by 2020 

which means refinancing will not commence until 2021. 31 

32 33 

- The Summit in Brussels on Wednesday, 26 October 2011 

led to the agreement that would increase the core capital 

ratio for banks temporarily until 2012, to 9 percent. The 

EFSF should therefore be used as insurance to guarantee 

purchases of bonds. The remaining EFSF, €250 to €270 

billion, will be used so that government securities valued 

over €1 billion can be secured. Merkel said the risk on the 

German guarantees totals €211 billion. 34 

- The Commission proposed an increase in its control of the 

fiscal policies of the Eurozone members. The proposal 

would have the Eurozone countries develop a common 

framework and timetable for the preparation of national 

budgets, as well as the creation of independent national 

authorities to monitor them. In Germany it meant a new 

body for the financial supervision would need to be 

created. The President of the European Commission, José 

Manuel Barroso faced criticism from Germany regarding 

the euro-dominated bonds. There appeared to be a growing 

chasm between Barroso and Merkel. 35 

- In December 2011, after another EU summit in Brussels, 

Merkel looked forward to the commitments of the summit. 

After ten hours of negotiations, the heads of state for 

the 27 Member States agreed to sign a contract in March. 

This would be an intergovernmental agreement that 

would have any breach of the Stability and Growth Pact 

lead to the commencement of legal proceedings against 

the country. The group wanted the Eurozone to enshrine 

a debt brake, of at most 0.5 percent of GDP, in their constitutions. 

Also, the permanent Euro rescue fund, ESM 

would be established mid 2012, a full year ahead of sche- 

68

dule. Merkel expressed satisfaction with the agreement, 

stating it was a “good result”. 36 

- In a policy statement in Parliament in December 2011, 

Merkel said the change of EU treaties failed due to Britain 

therefore inter-governmental agreements will need to 

soon be ratified. She expressed regret that Britain had 

gone that route but reaffirmed that the country is still a 

key partner, especially in foreign and security policy. She 

also stated that the IMF would back up the involvement of 

the private sector. 37 38 39 40 41 

The Environment 

European Union Climate & Energy Policy 

- Industries are posing to be an obstacle for the EU Climate 

Commissioner, and are fighting reforms. The German Environment 

Minister, Norbert Röttgen, is supporting the 

reduction of CO2 emissions a further 10 percent beyond 

the levels originally proposed. 42 

- At the EU level, the German government strongly supports 

a reduction in emissions. Their reasoning is that Europe 

would fall behind other nations in the push to become 

less carbon-dependent. A further reduction of 40 

percent from the original proposal in the German 

CDU/FDP coalition agreement was suggested. 43 

- The EU Commission proposed an increase of 60 percent 

on the minimum fuel tax on diesel; however, as every 

second vehicle in Germany is a diesel car, the German 

government did not support this proposal because of the 

increased cost for consumers. 44 The Commission felt that 

the price of diesel was too low, considering the carbon 

content of the fuel. German farmers would be affected in 

two ways, while increased biofuel sales would translate 

into greater crop sales, their equipment’s dependence on 

diesel would negate any potential benefit. 45 46 

Agricultural Politics 

- On January 22, 2011 thousands of protesters marched in 

Berlin against the EU’s agricultural policy; they were pro- 

69

testing factory farming, the use of genetically modified 

food and the destruction of the environment. 47 

- The EU distributed more than 100 billion Euros in agricultural 

subsidies; however, some suggested that the elimination 

of EU agricultural funds would benefit German 

farmers more. 48 Currently there is a push by the French 

and Germans for increase in bio-agriculture and development 

of new technology. 49 

EU Foreign Policy & Internal Policy 

- The EU’s intervention in Libya raised questions about the 

EU’s foreign policy objectives. Polls showed that 80 percent 

of the German population was against intervention. 

The Member States’ dispute over military interventions 

demonstrates how divergent their political cultures are. 50 

- The events of the Arab Spring, the nuclear crisis in Japan 

and the Eurocrisis have demonstrated Europe’s inability 

to act decisively. The EU lacked cohesion in its dealing 

with these crises. 51 

- Denmark wants to impose stronger border controls. Many 

countries, along with the Commission are against this as 

it goes against the Schengen agreement. The German government 

is strongly against this proposal and agreed with 

the Commission’s opinion. Federal Justice Minister Sabine 

Leutheusser-Scharrenberger stated that permanent border 

controls would “take one of the achievements of the 

EU away.” 52 53 Much of this debate is in response to the 

large influx of North African refugees. 

54 55 56 

- Germany’s decision to not participate in the NATO mission 

to Libya demonstrated the EU’s lack of military unity. 

This was reflected through the fragmented Common Foreign 

Security Policy. Although 28 members of NATO have 

supported the mission, less than a third participated in 

the bombing of pro-Gaddafi forces. 57 58 


Stating that Germany plays a crucial role in the EU 

would be an understatement. Upon analyzing the three 

70

media sources mentioned above, a series of trends have 

emerged. The Eurocrisis has been at the centre of many 

debates and is reflected in the vast number of articles discussing 

it. At the beginning of the year the focus was on the 

role Germany’s Chancellor, Angela Merkel, was playing in 

the Euro crisis. The real debate surrounded Merkel’s push 

for a “Competitiveness Pact” as a solution to the debt crisis. 

The pact was sold as a German solution to the European 

problem, based on the German Constitution. This was received 

favourably in Germany but within the EU it was 

quickly rejected, as there was a fear that it would bind the 

Eurozone states together and isolate them from the non- 

Eurozone members, essentially creating a further division 

within the EU. 

Before the summit in March 2011 it was already 

apparent that Merkel’s Pact was not appropriate for the EU 

and was reduced to a regulatory framework for the final 

agreement. This was not well received by the German public. 

In the various articles on the Eurozone crisis it was expressed 

that the real decision-making was occurring in 

Berlin and not in Brussels. The reduction of Merkel’s Pact 

to a framework therefore caused discontent among the 

German public and this was clearly reflected in the style 

and slant of many articles. 

While the relationship between Germany and the 

EU did not change per se, the relationship of the German 

people and their government did. Germany is the main guarantor 

for the new crisis fund of the EU and therefore will 

play a crucial role in the shaping of EU policy. Some of the 

articles hinted that Merkel was preaching that Germany 

would not take the burden of the crisis fund, but behind 

closed doors she had realized that her Pact would fail and 

needed to quickly renegotiate the rescue package. This 

demonstrated the miscommunication between the German 

state and the German people, regarding the Euro crisis. 

As the debt crisis progressed it was said that Chancellor 

Merkel, who at the beginning of the crisis took a hard 

line, was now stalling and making the situation worse. 59 It 

was clear though that the process of settling the EFSF required 

a great amount of time and planning. The Germans 

71

were opposed to the ECB´s plan to create Eurobonds in order 

to raise the funds necessary to assist Greece and other 

Member States’ failing economies; Germans were unwilling 

to support the creation of Eurobonds as there was an explicit 

fear that it would damage their own country’s interest 

rates. There was a clear division between Merkel and European 

Commission President Barroso on the topic of Eurobonds. 

60 Despite this division, Merkel’s plan for the 

Member States to have greater financial accountability was 

well received and she was praised as a leader in this respect. 

The other two trends that have been identified offer 

a different perspective on Germany’s role in the EU. In 

terms of pan-European security and foreign policy the 

German state is fairly limited in its abilities. Both socially 

and constitutionally, engaging in military interventions is 

negatively received by the majority of the domestic populace. 

The general consensus among the German population 

is that Germany should not partake in a European military 

intervention, which was discussed several times in the 

wake of the Arab spring. Later on in the year the number of 

refugees coming from North Africa brought the question of 

EU internal border policy into light. This resulted in some 

countries, specifically Denmark imposing border controls 

again, despite being in the Schengen agreement. Germany 

took this as a serious threat to the internal and free movement 

of people in the EU and sided with the Commission on 

this regard. 

Another topic that is continually discussed is Germany’s 

environmental role in Europe. Germany has consistently 

been a leader in environmental awareness and this is 

once again reflected in its stance on a European climate 

initiative. Internally however, there is great divide regarding 

the reduction of CO2 emissions and nuclear power. 

Within the EU context, Germany has been actively engaged 

on environmental topics, but internally it has struggled 

with managing the industries that pollute. Furthermore, a 

proposed tax increase on diesel fuel sparked outrage in 

Germany, as it is a huge consumer of diesel fuel for person- 

72

al as well as commercial vehicles. The proposed tax will 

make diesel more expensive than petrol. 

Of the major topics identified in this summary, the 

relationship between Germany and the EU has remained 

strong, fortified by the role Germany has played in the Union. 

Despite disagreements on the topics of foreign policy 

and diesel taxation, the Eurozone crisis demonstrated the 

commitment Germany’s government has to the stability 

and strength of not only the Eurozone countries, but also 

the EU as a whole. 

73

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2 ibid. 

3 Cini, Michelle, and Borragán Nieves Pérez-Solórzano. European Union 

Politics. Oxford: Oxford UP, p21. 2010. Print. 

4 "Portrait: Die Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung - Über Uns - 

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74

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32 Abstimmung über Euro-Rettungsschirm: Die Kanzlerin Wird Gestärkt 

Nach Brüssel Fahren." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 26 October 2011. 


33 "EU-Gipfel in Brüssel: Merkel Und Sarkozy Verkünden 

Fortschritte." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 23 October2011. Date of 

access: 11/01/2012. 

34 "Europas Staatschefs Ringen Um Schuldenschnitt." Süddeutsche 

Zeitung Online. 27 October 2011. Date of access: 11/01/2012. 

35 Mussler, Werner. "EU Kommission Will Haushaltspolitik Der Länder 

Stärker Kontrollieren." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 23 November 


36 Kafsack, Hendrick. "Merkel: Gipfel Ist Durchbruch Zur 

Stabilitätsunion." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 09 December 2011. 


37 Bannas, Günter. "Merkel: Wir Wollen Die Wende Zum Guten 

Schaffen." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 14 December 2011. Date of 

access: 11/02/2012. 

38 Aumüller, Johannes, and Thorsten Denkler. "Was Sie über Den EU 

Gipfel Wissen Müssen." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 08 December 


39 Gierke, Sebastian. "Drei Rettungswege Aus Der Euro- 

Krise." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 07 December 2011. Date of access: 

11/02/2012. 

40 Krupa, Matthias. "Ein Kontinent Reißt Sich Zusammen." Die Zeit Online. 


75

41 Brost, Marc, Matthias Krupa, and Mark Schieritz. "Merkels Großser 

Plan." Die Zeit Online. 01 December 2011. Date of access: 11/02/2012. 

42 Tatje, Class, and Fritz Vorholz. "Sturm Zieht Auf." Die Zeit Online. 24 


43 ibid. 

44 Gegen Höhere Steuern Auf Diesel." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 08 

April 2011. Date of access: 09/02/2012. 

45 Stabenow, Michael. "Merkel Lehnt Höhere Steuer Auf Diesel 

Ab." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 11 April 2011. Date of access: 

17/01/2012. 

46 "Preis Für Diesel Soll Drastisch Steigen." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 

08 April 2011. Date of access: 09/02/2012. 

47 "Protest in BerlinTausende Demonstrieren Gegen 

Massentierhaltung." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 22 January 2011. 


48 Tatje, Class. "Teurer Fraß." Die Zeit Online. 20 January 2011. Date of 

access: 16/01/2012. 

49 Grefe, Christiane, and Claas Tatje. "Brüssel, Bitte Zahlen." Die Zeit 

Online. 09 June 2011. Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

50 Busse, Nikolas. "EU - Außenpolitik." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 

26 Mar. 2011. Date of access: 21/01/2012. 

51 Krupa, Matthias. "Die Quadratur Der Krisen." Die Zeit Online. 17 March 


52 "EU-Staaten Wollen Schengen überarbeiten." Frankfurter Allgemeine 

Zeitung. 12 May 2011. Date of access:17/01/2012. 

53 Bittner, Jochen. "Das Beste Land Der Welt." Die Zeit Online 19 May 


54 "Dänemark Führt Grenzkontrollen Ein, Schranke Zu?" Süddeutsche 

Zeitung Online. 12 May 2011. Date of access:17/01/2012. 

55 "Grenzkontrollen in Dänemark: EU Kommission Verlangt Eine 

Erklärung Von Den Dänen." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 12 May 2011. 


56 "Dänemark: Streit Um Schengen Abkommen: Grenzwertige 

Kontrollen." Süddeutsche Zeitung Online. 18 July 2011. Date of access: 

12/01/2012. 

57 Bittner, Jochen. "Die Militärischen Fähigkeiten Sind Nicht Da." Die Zeit 

Online. 28 June 2011. Date of access: 4/02/2012. 

58 Naas, Matthias. "Vernagelt." Die Zeit. 15 July 2011. Date of access: 

10/02/2012. 

59 Busse, Nikolas. "Die Eiserne Kanzlerin Laviert." Frankfurter Allgemeine 

Zeitung. 20 July 2011. Date of access: 11/02/2012. 

60 Busse, Nikolas. "Ein Zunehmend Schwierigest Verhältnis." Frankfurter 

Allgemeine Zeitung. 24 November 2011. Date of access: 11/02/2012. 

76

77 

GREECE 

By Maria Varelas 

Ethnic composition: Greek 93%, other 

(foreign citizens) 7% (2001 census) 




EU funding in 2010: net recipient

BACKGROUND 

In 1981, Greece became an official member of the 

EEC (now the EU), and in 2001 it became the twelfth member 

of the EMU. It is now considered to be the second-most 

corrupt member of the EU. 1 Since 2008, Greece has been on 

the precipice of a financial default. Greece’s unsustainable 

fiscal policy – an overly generous welfare state, pervasive 

corruption and tax evasion – resulted in the market crisis 

the country is currently facing. Indeed, the prolonged economic 

turmoil in Greece played a significant role in the proliferation 

of financial crises in Europe. 

MEDIA SOURCES 

The following keywords were used to search the domestic 

media sources below: “Eurozone”, “economic crisis” and, 

“bailout”, and the results yielded thousands of articles, signifying 

the prevalence of the topic. 

Kathimerini 

www.kathimerini.gr 

Kathimerini (“Daily”) is a national daily Greek newspaper 

founded in 1988. The newspaper has its headquarters in 

Athens and is owned by the Alafouzos Publishing Company. 

In 2011 its sales dominated the newspaper market with a 

75.62% share, and a monthly average of approximately one 

million newspaper sales. 2 It collaborated with the International 

Herald Tribune and delivers an English version to 

Greece and Cyprus. The newspaper is considered to be centre-right. 

3 

To Vima 

www.tovima.gr 

To Vima (“The Tribune”) was launched in 1984 as a centreleft 

weekly in Athens. 4 Of the centre-left, it is closely associated 

with the PASOK political party, and their current 

leader and Greek Prime Minister, Evangelos Venizelos. 5 It 

78

features many interviews with domestic politicians. The 

Sunday edition, To Vima Tis Kiriakis has a weekly circulation 

of over 181,000 and is one of the most read publications 

on the market. 6 The newspaper is owned by the Lambrakis 

Press Publishing group. 7 

Ta Nea 

www.tanea.gr 

Ta Nea (“The News”) like To Vima, is a centre-left publication, 

also owned by the same publishing group, Lambrakis 

Press Publishing. 8 It is a daily evening newspaper, and is 

one of the top-selling newspapers of the country with a daily 

circulation of 53,000. 9 

FINDINGS 

Over 2011, Greek media was dominated by extensive coverage 

of the economic crisis the country had been suffering 

for the past two years. From the threats of Greece being 

kicked out of the Eurozone, to the question of whether or 

not the EU would agree to a bailout, the economy was the 

most significant topic of discussion in both domestic and 

international news. 

2011 IN REVIEW 

The major issues in the media, chiefly the Greek 

economic crisis and the debate over a bailout, have been 

the focus of domestic and international news, because of 

the fear of the impact the crisis would have upon the world 

economy. Greece’s fate depended upon the involvement of 

the international community. Washington corresponded 

often with the German Chancellor, Angela Merkel, and the 

French President, Nicholas Sarkozy, in order to create a 

plan to save both the EU and the euro. The fact that they 

have announced the need to coordinate actions to ensure a 

global recovery has been a popular topic in the media. 10 

The US in particular, has remained a staunch supporter of 

Greece, and has been putting pressure on Germany and 

79

other Eurozone countries to find a coordinated solution to 

the Eurozone crisis. 11 In contrast, European citizens have 

not been as supportive. The majority of German citizens, 

for example, oppose the bailout option, for fear of what it 

will do to their domestic economy. 12 The future of the euro 

and rising interest rates, have also created cause for global 

concern as result of the economic crisis. 13 As the European 

economy is restructured, fiscal rules are being implemented 

in order to ensure that the international community’s 

fears of an economic collapse do not become a reality. 

One possibility for Greece is establishing fiscal rules similar 

to those currently in place in Germany, which provides a 

structural deficit of 0.35% of GDP in 2016. 14 

The economic crisis and the question of the bailout 

have been the two most important issues in the Greek media, 

as they are believed to determine the country’s future. 

The role of the Greek government and its accountability in 

the crisis has been a prevalent topic in the news. 15 Also, 

domestic news reports were generally infused with a sense 

of optimism. Nearly all articles focused on the need for 

Greece to cut its debts, yet none truly considered a complete 

collapse of the country as a plausible option. In general, 

the articles discuss the need for a debt “haircut”, 16 and 

the need for a new government. 17 The belief that Greece 

would survive the crisis remained intact however. 

Furthermore, the fear of the dissolution of the EU 

was also widely discussed, with a heavy burden placed on 

Greek shoulders. The possibility of a Greek collapse was 

seen as a threat to the stability of the EU as a whole. 18 Even 

in addressing this scenario, articles were infused with a 

positive message, since, according to Sarkozy, the EU has a 

moral and economic obligation to Greece. 19 The Greek 

Prime Minister, Evangelos Venizelos, was also optimistic 

concerning the future of his country, telling his citizens that 

it would take “commitment, patience and hope” to overcome 

the crisis. 20 

An unavoidable consequence of the economic crisis 

was the degree to which the relationship between Greece 

and the EU changed over the course of 2011. A large number 

of articles reflected the responsibility that Greece 

80

placed on the Eurozone for the crisis, as they were expected 

to ensure the success of European fiscal stability. 21 

Much blame is also placed upon the corrupt Greek government 

for the economic crisis in Europe, a fact that does not 

paint Greece in a favourable light amongst Europeans. The 

Greek community feels humiliated by the crisis, and the 

country is currently suffering a deficit in international 

pride, a notion that is not aided by the fact that Greece now 

depends upon, and expects, help from the rest of Europe. 22 

81

1 "Corruption Perception Index 2011." Transparency International. 2011. 


2 "Newspapers." Athens Daily Newspaper Publishers Association. Date of 

access: 10/03/2012 

3 “Source Profile: Kathimerini.” Presseurop. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

4 Source Profile: To Vima.” Presseurop. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

5 Papachristou, Harry. "Greek finance minister Venizelos set to be Socialist 

leader." Reuters. 11 March 2012. Date of access: 14/03/2012.. 

6 Source Profile: To Vima.” Presseurop. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

7 "Lambrakis Press Publishing Sector." To Vima. Date of access: 

14/03/2012. 

8 Source Profile: Ta Nea.” Presseurop. Date of access: 30/03/2012. 

9 "Lambrakis Press Publishing Sector." Ta Nea. Date of access: 

14/03/2012. 

10 "Συνομιλία Ομπάμα-Μέρκελ για Ευρωζώνη-Μεσανατολικό." Ta Nea. 

20 September 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

11 Ellis, Athanasiou. "Πιέσεις από ΗΠΑ για τη στήριξη της Ελλάδας ." 

Kathimerini. 18 September 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

12 "Κατά του σχεδίου διάσωσης του ευρώ οι Γερμανοί." Ta Nea. 9 September 


13Reuters. "Η αλλαγή του κλίματος στην Ευρωζώνη ενισχύει το ευρώ." 

Kathimerini. 14 January 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

14 "Σχέδια αναδιάρθρωσης με αυστηρούς όρους εξετάζουν στην Ε.Ε." 

Kathimerini. 26 January 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

15 "Μίχαλος: «Η χώρα χρειάζεται μια νέα κυβέρνηση, απόψε»." Ta Nea. 6 

November 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

16 "Ευρω-συμφωνία για επανακεφαλαιοποίηση των τραπεζών με 100 

δισ. Ευρώ." Ta Nea. 22 October 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

17 "Μίχαλος: «Η χώρα χρειάζεται μια νέα κυβέρνηση, απόψε»." Ta Nea. 6 


18 Papachristos, Giorgos. "«Αποτυχία της Ελλάδας, αποτυχία της 

Ευρώπης»." Ta Nea . 1 October 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2011. 

19 Papachristos, Giorgos. "«Αποτυχία της Ελλάδας, αποτυχία της 

Ευρώπης»." Ta Nea. 1 October 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2011. 

20 "Βενιζέλος: «Δεν θα πάρουμε νέα μέτρα εισπρακτικού χαρακτήρα»." Ta 

Nea. 2 September 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

21“Τρισέ: Η ΕΚΤ είναι παρούσα στη δευτερογενή αγορά ομολόγων." To 

Vima. 9 August 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

22 "Συστράτευση για το νέο πρόγραμμα ζήτησε ο Ευάγγελος Βενιζέλος." 

To Vima. 20 December 2011. Date of access: 13/03/2012. 

82

83 

HUNGARY 

By Shija Zhang 

Ethnic composition: Hungarian 92.3%, 

Roma 1.9%, other or unknown 5.8% 

(2001 census) 





BACKGROUND: 

Hungary is a parliamentary democracy located in 

central Europe. Hungary’s history dates back to around 

1000 CE, when the martyr Saint Stephen was crowned 

king. Following the First World War, the dissolution of the 

Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Second World War, 

Hungary became a single-party state of the communist 

eastern bloc. After the collapse of communism, Hungary 

began the process of democratic transition, with the first 

free parliamentary election being held in 1990. This political 

transformation brought about the desire to ‘reconnect’ 

with the rest of Europe In 2004, Hungary, along with nine 

other candidates joined the EU. 1 

The initial celebration was soon overshadowed by 

doubt, as joining the EU did not deliver the promised benefits. 

In the recent 2010 parliamentary elections, Viktor 

Orbán and his centre-right party Fidesz won an absolute 

majority in the National Assembly, allowing them to implement 

policies without the need to consult the opposition. 

2 Currently, due to the passage of the Fundamental 

Law, which replaced the previous constitution on 18 April 

2011 and which violates several of the EU’s founding principles, 

there is a major conflict between Brussels and Budapest. 

3 In essence, the way that Brussels handles this case 

will set a precedent for future dealings with Member States 

that violate the fundamental ideals of the EU. 


In the past decade, the media industry of Hungary has experienced 

significant changes, largely as a result of the 

country’s democratic transition and accession to the EU. 

The most important factor was the arrival of foreign – 

mainly German – conglomerates that currently control 

most of the Hungarian media. The press in Hungary is 

judged to be free, 4 but due to a new media law passed by 

the current government, which allows for state monitoring 

and penalizing of private media, there has been speculation 

that this may no longer be the case. 5 The EU is currently 

84

eviewing the media law, along with many other policies 

enacted by the current government, to determine whether 

or not it complies with EU standards. 6 

With respect to the press, free online news portals have 

increased in popularity and readership compared to the 

traditional printed press. 7 

Origo 

www.origo.hu 

The most popular online news site in Hungary, Origo, has a 

daily readership of about 1.68 million. 8 9 Like most media 

entities in Hungary, it is known to have a slight left-ofcentre 

stance, but due to its wide readership, it aims to 

maintain a ‘central’ position. The website is owned by Hungarian 

Telekom – now a direct subsidiary of Deutsche Telekom 

– and was started in 1998 to address the lack of 

Hungarian content on the Internet. 10 

Index 

www.index.hu 

Index is the second most popular news site in Hungary, 

with a daily readership of about 1.3 million. 11 12 It advocates 

and prides itself as being an independent provider of 

‘news + opinion + community.’ 13 Created in 1999, the portal 

is owned by the Central European Media and Publishing 

Corp., which is a Budapest based regional online media 

provider. 

Blikk 

www.blikk.hu 

Blikk has the highest readership of all printed press in 

Hungary, approximately 1 million; comparable to the viewership 

of major network television channels. 14 15 It is a 

daily newspaper with a very strong online presence. Established 

in 1994 as a tabloid magazine, through the years it 

has grown into full-fledged daily paper with a casual ‘info- 

85

tainment’ style. 16 Blikk is targeted towards the mass audience, 

and Ringier – the owner of Blikk – often characterizes 

the paper as “Blikk = Hungary.” 17 The reality is that 

the paper is widely read among the low to middle class and 

often echoes their opinions and concerns. 

FINDINGS: 

Around 150 articles were consulted from the three media 

sources on the topic of ‘the EU and Hungary.’ The research 

is focused on the recurrent topics in media for 2011 however, 

due to some overarching issues this timeframe is extended 

in some cases. 

EU reaction to Fidesz’s reforms in Hungary 

- Budapest vs. Brussels: Since the 2010 elections, the national 

parliament of Hungary (Fidesz supermajority) has 

been able to pass legislation, such as the 2010 media act, 

without the need to consult the opposition However, Jobbik, 

which is a far-right radical anti-Semitic and anti- 

Roma party, is on the rise). These problematic new legislations, 

in essence, solidify the rule of Fidesz for many 

years to come. 18 19 

- The new media legislation allows the state to monitor and 

intervene in the private media. 20 A new monitoring board 

was set up that has the power to censor the private press. 

The ruling party’s argument was that they were looking 

out for the public, believing that some immoral and questionable 

topics should not be published without the approval 

of the new media board. Due to increasing pressure 

the government agreed to reform the media legislation 

(talks to amend the law in accordance with EU standards 

began on 31 January 2011. 21 the Hungarian constitutional 

court ruled that the media law was unconstitutional 

because it limited the freedom of the press on 19 

December 2011) in accordance with suggestions from the 

EU. 22 

86

- Legislation concerning the banks: While most European 

governments tried to strengthen their banking system in 

an attempt to avoid a Greek-style bankruptcy, the Hungarian 

government punished its banks, as it saw them as 

chiefly responsible for the crisis. 23 Due to a period of irresponsible 

lending, most of it in Swiss Francs (the Eurozone 

crisis caused the appreciation of Swiss Francs), 

many home and car owners saw their annuities increase 

by 40-50%. Fearing an economic collapse, the national 

government created legislation that held the banks responsible 

and proposed a way to opt-out. Under this new 

legislation, Hungarians who have loans in Swiss Francs 

are able to peg the exchange rate at an appropriate level, 

while banks are forced to absorb the losses. The current 

legislation is still in progress. 

o Renationalization of the pension system: Hungary had 

a hybrid pension system with private providers and 

government support, but the new government decided 

to renationalize pensions in order to fill up a budget 

hole. 24 Critics argue that this is only a short-term solution 

and will result in insecurity for future pensioners. 

The EU has no legislative power over this, as pensions 

fall under national jurisdiction. 

o Dependency of the Central Bank of Hungary: After the 

absorption of the pension funds, the current government 

looked for alternate ways to correct the budget 

imbalance, and one idea was to use the foreign exchange 

reserves – at an all time high - of the Hungarian 

Central Bank. 25 This was greatly criticized by the EU, 

and it looks as though the EU will force Hungary to abolish 

or reform this plan. 26 27 With the inclusion of 

most recommendations made by the EU, the government 

passed the legislation concerning the Central 

Bank of Hungary. 28 It is expected that the EU will penalize 

Hungary by freezing its funding, as the new legislation 

is in conflict with the funding charters of the 

Union. 29 

- The New Constitution of Hungary or ‘Alaptorveny’: The 

new constitution of Hungary was passed and came into 

87

force in record time – one year – without the consultation 

of the opposition or the general public. 30 31 It touches on a 

wide variety of topics, including the renaming of the 

country from the Republic of Hungary to Hungary, only 

recognizing marriage between a man and a woman, announcing 

the historic Christian heritage of the country. 32 

To some critics, the new constitution is guilty of curbing 

democracy. The Prime Minister of Hungary, Viktor Orban, 

sees the Fundamental Law as the finalization of the post- 

Communist political and economic transformation. The 

EU and the IMF are using all necessary pressures to force 

Hungary back to a more democratic route. 33 

The Eurozone crisis and Hungary’s economy 

- The Stability and Growth Pact (SGP): The SGP is an 

agreement between the 25 members of the EU (two 

members: the United Kingdom and the Czech Republic 

did not sign) to maintain the economic and monetary union. 

34 It introduces a penalty system under which Member 

States could be penalized if their budget deficits and 

debts supersede the approved limit. At first, the Orban 

government considered requiring the vote of the Hungarian 

parliament, in turn delaying or simply not participating 

in the agreement. Due to increasing pressure from 

both the EU and the IMF, however, the government decided 

to enter the pact along with 24 other Member 

States. 35 However, it is expected that the Hungarian Parliament 

will require a vote on the issue, which is expected 

to pass as the ruling party enjoys an absolute majority. 

- The Eurozone crisis: The Greek debt crisis that spread to 

Ireland, Spain, Portugal, and Italy was discussed thoroughly. 

36 37 Hungary, which is not a member of the eurozone 

and which is sheltered in Central Europe, became a 

cautious observer of the crisis. 38 While Orban recognized 

the vital role of banks in the economy, he advocated for 

banks to adopt more responsibility and for harder requirements 

on assigning bailouts to banks. While for 

years overspending and government debt made Hungary 

88

an undesirable candidate to enter the Eurozone, the financial 

crisis has diminished Hungary’s desire to join. 

While the common currency is still the next step in the 

European integration process, Hungarian politicians are 

increasingly putting that agenda on hold. 

- The Hungary – IMF agreement: Due to the Eurozone crisis 

and the subsequent degrading of the Hungarian credit 

rating, the government has decided to formulate an 

agreement with the IMF in case of insolvency. 39 This 

agreement is currently stalled due to pressures from both 

the EU and the US in regards to the recent undemocratic 

changes in Hungary. 40 Further delays could occur, as it is 

unlikely the agreement would be signed without a conscious 

reform of problematic legislation. 41 42 

The Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the EU 

- Hungarian presidency of the Council of the EU: From January 

to June 2011, Hungary held the presidency of the 

Council of the EU. 43 It was the first instance of Hungary 

filling the position, and many feared that a small and inexperienced 

country like Hungary might not be able to 

meet the bureaucratic demands of the position. However, 

the presidency was deemed a success, 44 both by native 

and foreign media outlets. 45 

- The European Roma Strategy: One of the legacies of the 

Hungarian presidency is the creation of the pan-European 

Roma strategy. 46 It is a joint effort by Hungary, Belgium, 

and Spain to encourage Member States to adopt a collective 

Roma strategy that could become the platform 

through which each Member State could devise and 

create their own Roma integration program. 


With the recent electoral changes in Hungary - Fidesz 

obtaining a supermajority - the Hungarian political 

arena became increasingly polarized. When Fidesz was 

89

first created with Orban at its helm, the party’s main promise 

was to restore the glory of the Hungarian nation 

through the removal of the last discernible vestiges of 

communist rule. Whether the recent constitutional and legislative 

changes were enacted to eradicate the legacy of 

communism or to entrench the rule of Fidesz for many 

years to come is up for debate. These recent constitutional 

and legislative changes pose a challenge to the fundamental 

ideals and basic treaties of the EU. 

Hungarian support for the EU was at an all-time 

high when the country joined in 2004. However, since then, 

enthusiasm has faded. A survey conducted by the European 

Commission shows that by 2008, less than one-third of the 

population expressed positive feelings towards the EU. 47 

While the national agenda before 2004 was solely focused 

on joining the EU and the Eurozone, after 2008 the desire 

for further integration came to a halt. 

The Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the EU 

– from January to June 2011 – was a perfect opportunity to 

restore good relations between Brussels and Budapest. The 

Presidency was considered a success by both local and foreign 

media outlets. 48 While bureaucrats and politicians fostered 

relations through cooperation and understanding, 

most of the Hungarian public remained uninvolved and 

uninterested with the achievements of the presidency. 

Furthermore, what started out as a polite political 

approach between Brussels and Budapest quickly turned 

into an ideological standoff. The small victories during the 

EU presidency were quickly overshadowed by the undemocratic 

domestic legislation and the new constitution 

produced by the Fidesz government. For many observers, 

the changes proposed by the Fidesz government were undemocratic; 

entrenching Fidesz as the leading party for 

many years to come. 

The complexity and underlying consequences of 

the current situation is what makes it so hard to propose a 

solution for Hungary. For the EU, the Hungarian nuisance 

comes at the worst time possible, given the financial turmoil 

that has recently plagued it. Bureaucrats and politicians 

in Brussels are fully aware of the magnitude of the 

90

problem (which would set a precedent for future dealings 

with members that step out of line), but have limited tools 

to coerce Hungary to return to democratic principles. 

This explains why the proposed punishment for 

Hungary is simply the reduction of some EU subsidies and 

funds for the coming years. For Fidesz and Orban, this unprecedented 

political climate has allowed them to shape 

Hungary to their vision. The ruling party counts on the 

support of the majority and increasing pressures from the 

EU and the US are generally portrayed in official and public 

discourse as a breach of national sovereignty. The opposition 

is in shambles, thus even forcibly removing Orban or 

Fidesz (such as the case with Italy) is out of the question, as 

there is no viable alternative. The overwhelming support 

for Fidesz, and a concomitant cultic obsession with Orban, 

governs the national political arena. Increasingly, as pressures 

and punishments from both the EU and the IMF 

mount, the public is becoming ever more critical of the intent 

of these actions. Instead of being the champions and 

safeguards of democracy, the EU is increasingly viewed as 

an imperialist tool dominated by foreign interest that is 

against the wishes of the Hungarian public. Ultimately, the 

EU is trying to preserve democracy for the people of Hungary, 

but with mounting ultimatums and looming punishments 

in a depressed economy, the EU is only succeeding 

at pushing Hungary further away. 

91

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2 “Hungary: Parliamentary Elections.” European Election Database. 2012. 


3 Krugman, Paul. “Hungary, Misunderstood?” The New York Times. 21 


Krugman, Paul. “The Unconstitutional Constitution.” The New York 

Times. 2 January 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

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01/04/2012. 

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7 Webaudit.hu. 2012. Date of access: 10/02/2012 


9 “Origo: usage.” Corp. Origo. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

10 “Origo” Corp. Origo. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 


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15 Ringier Publishing. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 



18 “Rohamtempóban a diktatúra felé.” Index. 27 December 2011. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

19 " Guardian: Magyarorszag frontalis utkozesre keszul." Origo. 26 November 


20 "Europai Parlament: vita a Magyar mediatorveny korul." Origo. 18 


21 "Az EU mediaugyi biztosa meltatta a gyors magyar reagalast." Origo. 


22 "Két hetet kapott a kormány, hogy válaszoljon az EU kifogásaira a 

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Index. 30 December 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

92

27 "Ismet a jegybanktorveny modositasanal szuksegessegerol beszelt olli 

rehn unios biztos." Origo. 11 January 2012. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

28 "Elfogadták a jegybanktörvényt." Index. 30 December 2011. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

29 "MNB: Sérti az ország érdekeit az új jegybanktörvény." Index. 30 December 


30 "Bizottsági állásfoglalást kértek a magyar alkotmányról." Index. 10 

June 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

31 "Módosíttatná a magyar alkotmányt az EP." Index. 5 July 2011. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

32 "Módosíttatná a magyar alkotmányt az EP." Index. 5 July 2011. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

33 "Magyarország nem csökkentette megfeleően a hiányt." Origo. 11 January 


34 "Elfogadták az új uniós mentőcsomagot." Origo. 30 January 2012. Date 


35 "Magyarországon próbálhatja ki az EU az új büntetőmechanizmusát." 

Origo. 20 July 2010. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

36 "EU scucstalalkozo az eurozona valsagarol a magyarorszagot erinto 

hatasok." Origo. 25 October 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

37 "Még az idén stabilizálná az eurót Van Rompuy." Index. 6 April 2011. 


38 "Az olasz dominó után Magyarország is eldől-e." Origo. 12 November 


39 "Az IMF megkapta a hivatalos felkérést Magyarországtól." Origo. 21 


40 "Hónapokat csúszhat az IMF-egyezség." Index. 30 December 2011. 


41 "Nem is az IMF-fel balhéztunk össze." Index. 19 December 2011. Date 


42 "Elemzők a Moodys-leminősítésről." Origo. 25 November 2011. Date 


43 "Magyarország hivatalosan is átvette az EU-elnökséget." Origo. 6 January 


44 "Parlament percről percre: megszavazzák az Alkotmánybíróság öt új 

tagja." Origo. 27 June 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

45 "Orbán elégedett az EU-elnökség teljesítményével." Index. 25 March 


46 "Romastratégiával állna elő EU-elnökként Orbán." Origo. 16 September 


47 "National Report Executive Summary: Hungary." Eurobarometer 70, 

European Commission. 2008. Date accessed: 01/04/2012. 

48 "Orbán elégedett az EU-elnökség teljesítményével." Index. 25 March 


93

IRELAND 

By Chris Granicolo 

Ethnic composition: Irish 87.4%, other 

white 7.5%, Asian 1.3%, black 1.1%, 

mixed 1.1%, unspecified 1.6% (2006 

census) 





94

BACKGROUND: 

Ireland has experienced a dramatic economic 

transformation since its accession to the EU in 1973. Prior 

to its accession to the EU, Ireland was a largely agricultural 

society; Ireland has undergone sweeping reforms and has 

developed a modern, technologically advanced economy. 1 

Highlights of its EU membership include rapid progress in 

both agricultural and industrial capacities, as well as the 

strengthening of economic ties with countries both within 

and outside of the EU. 2 Ireland averaged 6% GDP growth 

between 1995 and 2007, but the world financial crisis had 

a profoundly detrimental effect on the country’s economy. 

Ireland entered its first recession in over a decade in 2008. 

As a result, Ireland’s GDP suffered severely, falling 3% in 

2008, and subsequently, decreasing by nearly 8% and 1 % 

in 2009 and 2010 respectively. These setbacks culminated 

in Ireland receiving a $112 billion loan package from the 

EU and the IMF. 3 Ireland, along with Greece and Portugal, 

are the only 3 EU countries to have received formal bailouts 

from the EU. 4 


The Irish Independent 

www.independent.ie 

The Irish Independent is Ireland’s largest selling daily 

newspaper with a daily circulation of 181,000 copies that 

espouses a centre-right and populist political and social 

bias. 5 Owned by the Independent News and Media conglomerate, 

the Irish Independent has been accused of having 

an “unhealthy dominance” of the Irish newspaper market. 

The website includes substantial regional and national content. 

6 

95

The Irish Times 

www.irishtimes.com 

The Irish Times newspaper is in wide circulation across 

Ireland, with approximately 119,000 units circulated daily. 

7 It is Ireland’s “newspaper of record,” trusted by the 

government to publish public or legal notices. The Irish 

Times is politically liberal. The website launched in 1994, 

provides live news updates with a broad readership, particularly 

among the Irish diaspora. 8 

The Irish Examiner 

www.irishexaminer.com 

The Irish Examiner is a national daily newspaper with an 

average daily circulation of 57,000 units. 9 The newspaper 

possesses a centrist political bias. The website for the Irish 

Examiner includes all news articles and publications found 

in the print edition, and is readily accessible to the general 

public. 10 

FINDINGS: 

Three Irish media outlets were consulted for these findings. 

Due to the state of the Irish economy and the subsequent 

EU and IMF bailout, the country’s media has provided 

extensive coverage on Ireland’s economic relationship 

with the EU. Consequently, the troubled economy has 

figured as the most salient topic in the Irish media in 2011. 

Keywords that were used to narrow down the hundreds of 

articles relating to Ireland’s relationship with the EU include: 

“Irish domestic perception and the EU,” “Ireland and 

the Euro,” “Financial crisis and Ireland,” “Leaving the EU.” 

After narrowing down this research, the findings were categorized 

and three major topics stand out as the main issues 

reported on in 2011. 

96


Ireland’s current relationship with the EU is quite 

tumultuous. Recently, a bleak economic performance aggravated 

by poor Irish leadership has resulted in demands 

of Irish separation from the Eurozone. Conversely, there 

are also those that feel Ireland’s image within the EU is suffering 

due to their poor economic status and that it must be 

repaired. 

Throughout 2011, numerous articles calling for 

Irish separation from the EU were published. An article in 

December of 2011 blamed Ireland’s EU membership as the 

root cause of the nation’s current economic crisis and the 

cause of a seven-fold increase in Irish bank lending from 

1997-2007. 11 Another author, in December 2011, called for 

Ireland to abandon the euro for a national currency and to 

reaffirm its ties with the most powerful EU countries. 12 A 

poll conducted in May 2011 revealed that one in five Irish 

people felt that Ireland should begin a gradual process of 

disengagement from the EU. 13 Although 23% of those 

polled felt that leaving the EU was necessary, 73% felt that 

the status quo of EU inclusivity was necessary. Other reports 

indicated Ireland’s discontent with the EU’s overarching 

authority, especially in terms of Germany’s leading 

role in decision-making. 14 It is not surprising to see Irish 

dismay toward inclusion in the EU; however the country 

has made great strides to repair its position in the institution, 

especially after receiving a $112 billion loan package. 

15 Moreover, some reports have argued that EU membership 

has benefited Ireland greatly; blaming the current 

economic crisis on a flawed international banking system. 16 

One of the major reasons for the Irish media’s depiction 

of a strain in the country’s relationship with the EU 

is its domestic leadership. The leader in Ireland, known as 

the “Taoiseach,” is Enda Kenny. Taking on a role similar to 

a Prime Minister, the Taoiseach is expected to be Ireland’s 

leading voice in international affairs. However, since 

elected in March of 2011, Enda Kenny has yet to “hold a 

single substantive meeting with any leader in the Eurozone.” 

17 Kenny has also been accused of failing to recognize 

97

the urgency of the European situation and of taking on the 

role of a spectator in the sovereign debt crisis that is ravaging 

his country. 18 The leader of Ireland’s third largest party, 

the Fianna Fáil, Michael Martin feels that the “Governments 

policy of sitting on the sidelines is achieving nothing...Europe’s 

leaders are making the crisis worse everyday.” 

19 There are those within Ireland that feel the country 

will become a pauper state if its people do not stick together 

and fight the protectionism emanating from the European 

banks. 20 The Irish leadership is under pressure domestically 

for their casual approach to dealing with other 

European leaders. 

There has been a call in the media for Ireland to 

reaffirm its ties with Europe and to repair its tainted image. 

In March 2011, an article was published that urged Ireland 

to adopt a foreign policy approach that would restore Ireland 

to her former position as a strong unit within Europe. 21 

Being a small nation, greater sensitivity to their neighbours 

is argued as a key driver in the hopes of restoring past ties 

with the other Eurozone members. 22 To most EU members, 

the economic implosion of Ireland came as a great surprise. 

23 While Ireland was once an exemplar for other nations, 

the reverse is now true. 24 Repairing the Irish image 

seemed to be the top priority on the agenda, however, 

when the article was written on March 22, 2011, the world 

was transfixed by the popular uprising in Libya and the 

natural disasters in Japan. In light of these events, the reparation 

of Ireland’s image was delayed. 25 

In conclusion, there is a great amount of evidence 

proving that Ireland’s relationship with the EU throughout 

2011 was troubled. The destabilized economy required a 

massive European-led bailout package to prevent the continents 

economy from collapsing. Europe will likely view 

Ireland warily until its economic situation is fixed. Simultaneously, 

the majority of Irish feel that greater EU inclusivity 

is necessary for the nation’s well being and a more assertive 

role by the country’s leadership is essential to fostering 

this relationship. 

98

1 "EUROPA - European Countries - Ireland." Europa.eu. 2012. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012 . 

2 "Ireland In The World - The European Union." Ireland, Free Family 

Crests, Maps, Genealogy and Information. Date of access:01/04/2012. 

3 "CIA - The World Factbook." Ireland. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

4 "EU and the Euro: Where They Stand." BBC News. 9 December 2011. 


5 “Source Profile: Irish Independent.” Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

6 “About us.” Independent.ie. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

7 “Source Profile: The Irish Times.” Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

8 “Source Profile: The Irish Times.” Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

9 “Source Profile: Irish Examiner.” Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

10 “FAQ.” Irish Examiner. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

11 "Let's Keep 12.5 per Cent Tax Rate and Quit the Euro." Irish Independent. 


12 Arnold, Bruce. “ Ten wishes for what will be a difficult year ahead.” 

Irish Independent. 26 December 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

13 Reilly, Jerome. "One in Five Feel We Must Start Process of Leaving EU." 

Irish Independent. 29 May 2011. Date of access: 27/12/2011. 

14 Arnold, Bruce. “It’s time to steer a course away from euro chaos.” Irish 

Independent. 28 November 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

Cooper, Matt. “With friends like the EU and the ECB, who needs enemies?” 

Irish Examiner. 13 May 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

15 "Ireland." CIA - The World Factbook . 2012. Date of access: 

01/04/2012.. 

16 McClean, Caitriona. “The banks’ victims.” Irish independent. 31 December 


17 Corcoran, Jody. "250 Days In, Kenny Has No Plan for Euro Crisis." Irish 






20 Buffini. Brendan. “New Year wish.” Irish Independent. 27 December 


21 Cronin, Michael. "Irish Relationship with Europe Must Focus on Cultural 

Wealth." Irish Times. 19 March 2011. Date of access: 27/12/2011 

22 Cronin, Michael. "Irish Relationship with Europe Must Focus on Cultural 

Wealth." Irish Times. 19 March 2011. Date of access: 27/12/2011 

23 Beesley, Arthur. "All the Work Remains to Be Done on Improving Ireland's 

Image." Irish Times. 22 March 2011. Date of access: 27/12/2011. 

99

24 Beesley, Arthur. "All the Work Remains to Be Done on Improving Ireland's 


25Beesley, Arthur. "All the Work Remains to Be Done on Improving Ireland's 


100

101 

ITALY 

By Alessandro Gemmiti 

Ethnic composition: Italian (includes 

small clusters of German-, French-, 

and Slovene-Italians in the north and 

Albanian-Italians and Greek-Italians 

in the south) 





BACKGROUND: 

Italy was one of the six founding members of the 

EC in 1957 and maintains a significant position in the EU 

to date. 1 With a population of 61 million people, Italy has 

one of the largest populations and one of the largest 

economies in the EU to date. 2 

Italy has traditionally been supportive of European 

integration and has been at the forefront of all major 

EU initiatives promoting greater European integration, 

including the EEC, the Schengen Agreement, and the 

Eurozone. Italy has occasionally drawn criticism from 

other fellow member states, for a possible contravention 

of Maastricht Treaty in terms of high level of its debt. 

Recently, Italians have begun to question their 

country’s position in the Eurozone as slow growth and 

lack of competitiveness characterized its economy. 3 

Some have suggested that the economy’s sluggish 

growth can be attributed to the Eurozone itself. This 

slow growth culminated in a massive economic downturn 

in 2008, which forced the centre-right coalition led 

by Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi and his Forza Italia 

party out of power amid the soaring national debt crisis 

in 2011. 4 The current Prime Minister former EU Competition 

Commissioner and economist Mario Monti is heading 

a caretaker government of technocrats, which aims 

to restore stability to the Italian economy. 5 For the moment, 

the Italian government remains committed to its 

EU membership. 


Italy's approach to its media has often made headlines at 

home and abroad, “with concern regularly being expressed 

over the concentration of media ownership in 

the hands of one man - former Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.” 

6 The Italian press is highly regionalized, reflecting 

the country's strongly regional history and character. 

7 Most newspapers are privately owned, often linked 

to a political party or run by a large media group. 8 

102

Newspaper readership figures are low compared to other 

European countries. Reporters Without Borders 

ranked Italy as 61 on its press freedom index for 

2011/2012, as the country failed to address issues of 

media freedom violations. 9 

Corierre della Sera 

www.corriere.it 

Founded in 1876, Corriere della Sera is Italy’s bestselling 

daily newspaper. Corriere has maintained its independence 

throughout periods of political turmoil in 

Italy. 10 Headquartered in Milan, the Corriere is owned by 

the RCS Group (Rizzoli Corriere della Sera), and has several 

shareholders, including Fiat and Mediobanca, two of 

the biggest industrial firms in Italy. From the outset, Corriere 

established itself amongst its peers as an authority, 

“voicing the opinions of the industrial bourgeoisie from 

the North.” 11 

La Repubblica 

www.repubblica.it 

La Repubblica is an Italian daily newspaper founded in 

1976 by the Roman journalist Eugenio Scalfari. The paper 

is the second most widely read and circulated paper 

in Italy, with an average daily circulation in 2010 of 

448,544 copies. 12 The paper is owned by L’Espresso 

Group, headed by Carlo de Benedetti, and has both a 

common national edition, as well as regional editions in 

Rome, Milan, Turin, Bologna, Genoa, Florence, Naples, 

Palermo and Bari. 13 The paper has been known for its 

moderate left wing tendencies; however it is impartial in 

its criticism of Italian politics. 

Il Messaggero 

www.ilmessaggero.it 

Founded in 1878, Roman daily Il Messagero is the largest 

selling newspaper in Rome and provides different local 

103

editions for the provinces of Lazio, Umbria, Marche, Abruzzo, 

and Tuscany. 14 Il Messaggero ranks fourth for readership 

in Italy and claims to “give a voice to a remarkable 

group of regions, provinces and municipalities in the 

heart of Italy.” 15 It is noted for its national politics and 

local news pages, which feature reports on municipal 

politics, sport, and cultural events. 16 Throughout its 140year 

history, Il Messagero has been bought and sold 

many times. Today, it is owned by one of Italy's main industrial 

groups, Caltagirone. 17 

FINDINGS: 

Several hundred articles were consulted from the three 

aforementioned media sources. The keywords “Italy and 

the EU”, “the Schengen Treaty”, “Lampedusa”, “Italian 

economic crisis”, “Eurozone crisis”, and “Italian pension 

reform” were used to conduct the search. Of the articles 

consulted, a rough tally was kept of the frequency that 

certain issues appeared both monthly and annually. 

From the results, the following four issues were the most 

prominent in 2011. 

The Arab Spring and the Schengen Treaty 

- The Arab Spring in early 2011 led to a drastic increase 

in the number of North African refugees seeking asylum 

in the EU. Italy, and in particular the small island of 

Lampedusa, became the landing ground for thousands 

of Libyan refugees in the midst of the Libyan civil 

war. 18 This posed significant logistical and ethical problems 

for the Italian government, as it was forced to 

provide accommodation for many of these immigrants 

until their future could be decided. 

- Prime Minister Berlusconi emphasized that illegal 

North African migration was a “European problem” and 

not an exclusively Italian one. 19 It was noted that many 

migrants used Italy as a landing zone to gain access to 

the EU before heading to France or Germany where 

their relatives resided. 20 Due to the fact that the vast 

104

majority of the refugees arriving on Lampedusa were 

asylum seekers, they could not be denied entry and 

free movement within the EU. 21 In response, Italy demanded 

“real support” from the EU in the form of payments 

in order to support the massive influx of migrants. 

22 

- France responded by threatening to unilaterally suspend 

the Schengen Treaty with Italy. In order to stem 

the flow of asylum seekers into France, the French government 

temporarily suspended the movement of 

trains between the countries. The German Interior Minister 

responded by telling Italy to “stop its complaining 

about arrivals…and fulfill its obligations to the 

EU.” 23 

- The tensions between Italy and France were diminished, 

following a meeting between Italian Prime Minister 

Berlusconi and French President Sarkozy at Villa 

Madama. A bilateral agreement was established between 

the two countries that laid the groundwork for a 

joint review of “exceptional cases" of the mechanisms 

of the Schengen Treaty. 24 

Italian debt and the Eurozone crisis 

- The decline of the Italian economy was met with significant 

pessimism by the Italian press in early 2011. Articles 

highlighted Italy’s poor economic performance in 

comparison to other EU Member States and implied 

that this was a result of excessive spending and lax 

economic regulation. Pessimism was prevalent in many 

of the articles and Italy was often portrayed as a threat 

to EU stability. Although Italy’s role within the EU was 

questioned, there was no indication that Italy intended 

to remove itself from the organization. Instead, the solution 

to the Eurozone crisis was to be found in greater 

cooperation and coordination with the rest of the EU. 25 

- Italy’s economic woes were seen to compromise its national 

integrity. Although comparisons were drawn between 

the financial situations of Italy and that of 

Greece, Spain, and Portugal, it was determined that the 

105

Italian economy was more stable and therefore unlikely 

to need a bailout from the EU. Furthermore, the austerity 

measures implemented by Prime Minister Monti 

were seen as an improvement to those implemented by 

Prime Minister Berlusconi. 26 It was recognized that recovery 

would be slow and that GDP would initially decrease; 

however, this was seen as a necessary step toward 

recovery. 27 

- The majority of the early articles emphasized the inability 

of Prime Minister Berlusconi’s government to 

properly respond to the economic crisis. Prime Minister 

Berlusconi’s lack of professionalism marginalized 

him in the eyes of many. 28 This trend was reversed 

when Mario Monti’s government took power in November 

2011, as an increasing number of articles highlighted 

the cooperation between the leaders of Italy, 

Germany and France over the crisis. 29 

- A number of the articles also focused on the increasing 

debt level of Italian households. This debt was paired 

with increasing national levels of inflation and it was 

made clear that the situation was not likely to improve 

in the near future. 30 Italian indebtedness was portrayed 

as a result of a worsening economic crisis and was 

paired with increasing levels of unemployment, primarily 

among women and youth and increased 

layoffs. 31 

Pension Reform and Labour Legislation 

- The EU pressed Italy to undertake a pension reform in 

September and October of 2011. The reform was 

passed on October of 2011 and saw the retirement age 

increase to 67 years. 32 This was part of a plan to see 

Italy achieve a balanced budget by 2013 and a budget 

surplus by 2014, while simultaneously decreasing its 

public debt. 33 Labour legislation was also passed that 

made it easier for industries to implement layoffs in 

order to remain competitive. 34 

- Both pieces of legislation were met with significant criticism 

domestically, as the Italian government was seen 

106

as acquiescing to the European Commission’s demands 

at the expense of its own citizens. The European Commission 

applauded Italy for implementing the legislation, 

as did many at the EU headquarters in Brussels. 35 

The implementation of the legislation was seen as a 

firm commitment by the Italian government to diminish 

its public debt and combat the Eurozone crisis. 


Given the dire state of the Italian economy over the 

past year, it is unsurprising that the country received particularly 

harsh criticism from the EU over its need to reform 

its economy and refinance its debts. As Europe’s 

fourth largest economy, the possibility of an Italian bankruptcy 

was seen as particularly worrying, as there was a 

very real possibility that it would lead to a collapse of the 

Eurozone. Due to the size of the Italian economy, the EFSF 

was unlikely to have the capital necessary to fund an Italian 

bailout. Core Eurozone states, such as France and Germany, 

had already shown their reluctance to fund the bailout of 

much smaller economies, such as that of Greece and Spain. 

It quickly became apparent that the solution to Italy’s financial 

woes would involve internal financial reform and 

austerity measures. Given the political stalemate that characterized 

Italian domestic politics, and mounting accusations 

of political scandal against PM Berlusconi, the implementation 

of these measures proved to be increasingly 

problematic. 

PM Berlusconi was forced to resign on 12 November 

2011 after losing his parliamentary majority; he was 

replaced by Mario Monti, a former member of the European 

Commission, and his government of technocrats. PM 

Monti quickly stabilized the Italian financial system as he 

implemented measures proposed by the ECB to help Italy 

reduce its $2.6 trillion public debt and increase its economic 

growth. Although the Italian public resented the austerity 

measures, they accepted them as a necessity in order to 

ensure the country’s sound economic recovery and the 

maintenance of its position of influence in the EU. The Eu- 

107

opean Commission applauded Italy for implementing the 

measures, as did many in Brussels. 

The possibility of Italy exiting the Eurozone or EU 

as a result of its financial woes was not widely discussed 

within the Italian media; this can be attributed to the country’s 

strong historical ties with these institutions and its 

consistent advocacy of European integration. Because the 

EU continues to hold a position of authority in Italian society 

the potential for an Italian withdrawal from the EU is 

unlikely. 

108

1 “Italy.” CIVITAS: Institute for the Study of Civil Society. 25 November 11. 


2 ibid. 

3 ibid. 

4 ibid. 

5 ibid. 

6 “Italy Country Profile.” BBC News. 14 February 11. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

7 ibid. 

8 ibid. 

9 “Press Freedom Index 2011-2012.” Reporters Without Borders. 2011. 


10 “Corriere Della Sera.” Presseurop. Date of access: 21/02/2012. 

11 ibid. 

12 “La Repubblica.” Gruppo Editoriale L’Espresso. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

13 ibid. 

14 “Il Messaggero Profile.” Piemme: Concessionaria di Pubblicita. Date of 

access: 21/02/2012. 

15 ibid. 

16 ibid. 

17 ibid. 

18 “Berlusconi a Lampedusa: Isola Svuotata ‘L'Ue Sia Concreta O è Meglio 

Dividerci.’” Corriere Della Sera. 09 April 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

19 ibid. 

20 ibid. 

21 “Berlino All'Italia: Basta Lamentarsi per ArriviSolidarietà è Anche 

Adempiere Agli Obblighi.” La Repubblica. 10 May 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

22 ibid. 

23 ibid. 

24 “Faccia a Faccia Berlusconi e Sarkozy ‘Cambieremo Schengen 

Insieme.’” La Repubblica. 26 April 2011. Date of access: 21/02/2012. 

25 “Napolitano: Siamo Di Fronte a Scelte Severe E Coraggiose, Salvare 

L'euro.” Corriere Della Sera. 16 December 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

26 “Draghi: Nessuna Alternativa All'austerityUe Taglia Stime Italia: Nel 

2012 Pil -1,3%.” Il Messeggero. 23 February 2012. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

27 ibid. 

28 “Rehn Da Monti: L'Italia Può Farcela"Merkel-Sarkozy: Se Crolla Roma 

Crolla Euro.” La Repubblica. 25 November 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

109

29 “Sostegno All'Italia Di Merkel E Sarkozy Ma Il Vertice Lascia Insoluta 

La Crisi Dell'euro.” Corriere Della Sera. 24 November 2011. Date of 

access: 21/02/2012. 

30 “Cresce Il Debito Delle Famiglie Italiane Roma La Provincia Con Più 

‘sofferenze’." Il Messeggero. 14 August 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

31“Licenziamenti per crisi, pensioni a 67 anni il governo convince l'Ue: 

‘Ma ora monitorare.’” La Repubblica. 26 October 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

32 “Pensione a 67 Anni E Licenziamenti Facili Primi Sì Di Bruxelles Al 

Piano Dell'Italia.” Corriere Della Sera. 26 October 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

33 ibid. 

34 ibid. 

35 “Intesa Su Misure, in Pensione a 67 Anni Stop Di Bossi Sui Trattamenti 

D'anzianità." Corriere Della Sera. 25 October 2011. Date of access: 

21/02/2012. 

110

111 

MALTA 

By Adrian Zita-Bennett 

Ethnic composition: Maltese (descendants 

of ancient Carthaginians and 

Phoenicians with strong elements of 

Italian and other Mediterranean 

stock) 

Population: 409,836 (July 2012 est.) 




BACKGROUND: 

Though only officially becoming a member on 1 

May 2004, Malta has enjoyed increasingly close relations 

with the EU since its independence in 1964. The relationship 

was forged on the basis of trade, as the countries have 

sought to gradually remove trade barriers to allow greater 

access to each other’s markets. As of 2002, trade with the 

EU accounted for 46% of Malta’s exports and 67% of its 

imports. 1 In addition to this, the EU provided financial assistance 

to Malta intermittently during the late 1970s and 

early 1980s. In the 1990s, Malta applied for membership in 

the EU and by December 2002, all negotiations concerning 

accession were completed. In a March 2003 referendum, 

53.6% of Maltese citizens voted in favour of membership, 

and Malta acceded to the Union on 1 May 2004. 2 


Di-ve 

www.di-ve.com 

Di-ve is a leading online news media portal in Malta. It is 

owned by the telecommunications company GO and is not 

affiliated with any particular political party though the 

NGO Network for Reporting on Eastern Europe has labelled 

Di-ve as liberal in terms of its political orientation. 3 

The Malta Star 

www.maltastar.com 

The Malta Star is a free online newspaper established and 

owned by the social democratic Malta Labour Party. Its political 

orientation is social democratic and it is characterized 

as having a strong amount of scepticism towards the 

EU. 4 It is the main online competitor of di-ve.com. 

112

The Times of Malta 

www.timesofmalta.com 

The Times of Malta is the largest Maltese daily newspaper. 

It is owned by Allied Newspapers Limited and is considered 

to have a conservative political orientation and is 

strongly in favour of the EU. 5 It is not affiliated with a political 

party. 

Malta Today 

www.maltatoday.com.mt 

Malta Today is a newspaper circulated only on Wednesdays 

and Sundays. It was founded by a former member of 

the Green Democratic Alternative Party along with a former 

functionary of the Nationalist Party. It is currently 

owned by MediaToday Co. Ltd. It has a liberal political 

orientation, though it is not officially affiliated with a political 

party. 6 

The Malta Independent 

www.independent.com.mt 

The Malta Independent is a daily newspaper owned by 

Standard Publications Ltd. The paper is not affiliated with a 

political party, though it appears to have a “liberal conservative” 

political orientation. 7 

FINDINGS: 


- On 11 March 2011, Malta backed the Franco-German 

Competitiveness Pact because, as Prime Minister Gonzi 

stated, it represented a tool “to strengthen the financial 

foundation of the ESM” and is important for EU members 

to improve their economies. 8 

- On 21 July 2011, at a Council of the EU Summit Meeting in 

Brussels, Malta agreed to contribute €400 million as part 

of a broad €159 billion Eurozone commitment to the 

113

EFSF in order to “decisively improve the debt sustainability 

and refinancing profile of Greece.” Prime Minister 

Gonzi said that the summit underscored the importance 

of EU Member States’ ability to achieve the kind of “fiscal 

consolidation” that “sends a positive message to the financial 

markets [and] creates stability.” 9 

- On 9 September 2011, the EC released its 2011 Public 

Finances Report, which offered several recommendations 

for Malta. It stated that Malta must adopt a “binding, rulebased” 

framework to push its deficit to below 3% of its 

GDP and reduce its growing debt. Also, the EC urged that 

Malta “take action” to ensure the sustainability of its 

pension system. 10 On 11 November 2011, the EC again 

warned Malta of an economic downturn, citing the fact 

that the country’s deficit and debt were projected to increase 

next year despite projected GDP growth. 11 

- On 8 November 2011, Malta, together with Bulgaria, Cyprus, 

and the Czech Republic, backed Sweden and Britain’s 

opposition to the so-called ‘Tobin Tax’ proposal 

(placing excise tax on cross border currency transactions) 

supported, most notably, by France and Germany. 12 The 

states in opposition argued that the levy would negatively 

impact both business and consumers. The ruling Nationalist 

Party led by Prime Minister Gonzi was supported in 

their position by the Opposition Labour Party; however, 

the Green Party (Alternattiva Demokratika), expressed 

“disappointment”, calling for banks and financial institutions 

to “participate in responsibility sharing for the economic 

crisis.” 13 

- On 10 December 2011, Malta, along with 25 other members 

of the EU reached a consensus on a new treaty (the 

European fiscal treaty) to be signed in March 2012. The 

treaty called for greater fiscal discipline and integration 

amongst members by reducing bloated deficits, mutually 

“approved” budgets, and progressing towards balanced 

budget legislation. 14 

114

Libyan Conflict 

Diplomacy 

- On 10 March 2011, ahead of the emergency EU summit 

scheduled for 11 March, Prime Minister Gonzi strongly 

advocated for an end to hostilities in Libya and stated that 

Malta would not help the Libyan government because it 

was “not a matter of mediation” and that the Libyan government 

“had to listen to the wishes of the Libyan 

people.” 15 

- On 11 March 2011, Malta, along with the other Member 

States, condemned the Gaddafi regime in Libya for its 

“use of military force against the civilian population,” 

with Prime Minister Gonzi stating that Malta expected the 

exit of Colonel Gaddafi from the political scene to be “inevitable.” 

16 

- On 13 March 2011, Malta, along with a “handful” of other 

Member States, called for a ceasefire in Libya during an 

informal meeting of EU foreign ministers in Budapest. 

The ministers also discussed imposing more sanctions on 

the Gaddafi regime. 

- On 26 February 2011, Maltese Foreign Minister Dr. Tonio 

Borg reiterated the government’s position that it would 

be “neither a mediator” nor “play any military role,” so as 

to not “burn bridges.” 17 

- On 31 March 2011, Malta froze “millions of Euros” in Libyan 

assets following the EU/UN directive to freeze the 

assets of the Libyan Investment Authority as well as those 

of Gaddafi and his family. 18 

- On 21 June 2011, Foreign Minister Borg, in conjunction 

with the foreign ministers of all other Member States, 

froze the assets of 6 Libyan port authorities controlled by 

Gaddafi’s forces. In a joint statement, the ministers added 

that Gaddafi had “lost all legitimacy to remain in power” 

and that there could be no impunity for crimes against 

humanity. 19 

Migration 

- On 30 March 2011, Malta issued a “strong appeal” to the 

EU for help in dealing with the large influx of migrants 

115

from Libya. It also reaffirmed its commitment to serve as 

a humanitarian base for refugees and treat those injured 

in the conflict. 20 On 1 April, however, the request was rejected 

by the EU Home Affairs Commissioner, Cecilia 

Malmström, who stated that Malta was not yet in “an 

emergency situation,” so such protection was not necessary. 

21 

- While the EU refused to allow the activation of the ‘solidarity 

mechanism’ which would have forced Member 

States to assist with the management of the illegal migrants 

flowing into Malta, on 13 April 2011, it did create a 

“pilot project” with similar provisions. The difference was 

that the pilot project would be entirely voluntary. 22 On 12 

May 2011, 12 Member States, in addition to 3 nonmembers, 

agreed to resettle 323 refugees who arrived in 

Malta as part of this resettlement initiative. The Maltese 

government saw this as a positive development, though it 

was noted that there was still room for improvement, 

given the nearly 2700 refugees that had entered the country. 

23 A 3 June 2011 EU report confirmed the unenthusiastic 

mood amongst Member States towards Malta’s appeal 

for burden-sharing, despite the “talk of solidarity,” as 

only 10 other Member States committed to this resettlement 

initiative. 24 

- On 28 November 2011, Interim Libyan PM Abdurrahim el 

Keib and Prime Minister Gonzi agreed to cooperate regarding 

the influx of Libyan migrants into Malta. 25 

- On 3 December 2011, Malmström announced a tentative 

plan to “force” Member States to “show solidarity” with 

those burdened with illegal immigration (i.e. Malta) because 

such solidarity had been “lower than expected.” 

The voluntary pilot project currently in place would be 

replaced by a permanent relocation scheme to encourage 

the full participation of all EU Member States. 26 


Despite their diminutive stature in terms of economy 

and geography, Malta still has a distinct role in the EU. 

Two main trends dominated popular discourse regarding 

116

Malta’s relationship with the EU in 2011: the Eurozone crisis 

and the Libyan war. Regarding the Eurozone crisis, Malta 

saw the improvement of Europe’s fiscal situation as crucial 

and actively participated in such efforts. In this way, 

Malta proved that it was not a so-called ‘lapdog’ of the EU, 

as it did not automatically support every initiative put forth 

by the bigger powers, such as France, Germany, or the UK. 

Malta opposed the Franco-German ‘Tobin Tax’ precisely 

because of their belief that it would drive away foreign investment 

— a move that put them at odds with many of the 

EU’s major players. In addition, Malta did not support its 

long-time ally, the UK, when Prime Minister David Cameron 

suggested that the European fiscal treaty be signed in 

March 2012. The realities of Malta’s own burgeoning debt 

and deficit give grounding to its statements that Member 

States must exercise greater fiscal discipline and restraint. 

By the third quarter of 2011, Malta had cut its debt by 1.6% 

of its GDP. Along with Italy, this represented the deepest 

cuts of all EU Member States. 27 This strong adherence to its 

rhetoric, in addition to its willingness to push back against 

‘bigger’ Member States to safeguard its national interests, 

is ample proof that Malta’s EU policy is not necessarily an 

extension of the wills of the majority of the Member States. 

The Maltese attitude perhaps was best reflected when 

Prime Minister Gonzi vowed on 27 June 2011 that Malta 

would not be “humiliated” like Greece because, as Finance 

Minister Tonio Fenech later stated on 13 November, Malta 

“has never shied away from taking the politically difficult 

but responsible decisions” on economic matters. 

117 

28 29 

Similarly, while Malta participated actively in discussions 

regarding the EU’s approach to the situation in 

Libya, it did not always agree with all EU positions on the 

matter. Malta denounced and imposed sanctions on the 

Gaddafi regime on several occasions throughout 2011, yet 

made sure to stay aloof from the conflict, preferring to neither 

‘mediate’ nor ‘play a military role’. The EU did not criticize 

the country’s limited participation as vigorously, due 

to the war’s direct impact on Malta in terms of the influx of 

illegal migration. As discussed, it was only on 3 December 

that the EU realized it could not merely encourage, but ra-

ther needed to “force” other member states to assist in the 

resettlement of these migrants, as most members, by and 

large, offered little in terms of aid. 

The ambivalent role of Malta in the EU is perhaps a 

major reason for the ongoing debate on the efficacy of the 

organization between some of Malta’s aforementioned 

press outlets. In many respects, the EU’s treatment of Malta 

in the Libyan case is indicative of the EU’s attitude toward 

Malta more broadly speaking. In general, it is clear that 

Malta is not a top concern for the EU. In addition to the 

EU’s slow response to Malta’s refugee issues, the EU committed 

– and then delayed – offering help to fund the financial 

restructuring of Air Malta, the country’s national airline. 

30 

Thus, in 2011, Malta and the EU engaged in sometimes 

amicable and always dynamic relations. Malta demonstrated 

a strong commitment to the organization on such 

matters and proved to be an important ally over the course 

of the year. Despite this fact, there is room for improvement 

in this relationship, as the EU needs to refrain from 

treating Malta merely as a ‘peripheral interest’ in the future. 

118

1 “History of Malta in the EU.” European Commission: The EU in Malta. 30 

October 2010. Date accessed: 03/01/2012. 

2 “History of Malta in the EU.” European Commission: The EU in Malta. 30 

October 2010. Date accessed: 03/01/2012. 

3 “di-ve.com media article.” eurotopics Press Review: The Network for 

Reporting on Eastern Europe. Date accessed: 03/01/2012. 

4 “Malta Star media article.” eurotopics Press Review: The Network for 


5 “Times of Malta media article.” eurotopics Press Review: The Network 

for Reporting on Eastern Europe. Date accessed: 03/01/2012. 

6 “Malta Today media article.” eurotopics Press Review: The Network for 


7 “The Malta Independent media article.” eurotopics Press Review: The 

Network for Reporting on Eastern Europe. Date accessed: 03/01/2012. 

8 Laiviera, Nestor. “Malta backs Euro Competiveness Pact.” Malta Today. 

21 March 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

9 Thomet Laurent. “Eurozone €159 bn Greece rescue.” Times of Malta. 22 

July 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

10 Vella, Matthew. “EU’s warning to Malta: adopt concrete measures to 

back up budge.” Malta Today. 15 September 2011. Date accessed: 

06/02/2012. 

11 Camilleri, Ivan. “Economy heads for a slowdown.” Times of Malta. 11 

November 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

12 “Malta, backing UK, Sweden against ‘Tobin Tax.’” Malta Today. 8 November 

2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

13 Dalli, Miriam. “EU needs financial transactions and corporate tax.” 

Malta Today. 12 December 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

14 Camilleri, Ivan. “EU Treaty agreed...but without UK,” Times of Malta. 10 

December 2011. Date accessed: 066/02/2012. 

15 Camilleri, Ivan. “Malta refused Libyan help request ahead of EU summit.” 

Times of Malta. 10 March 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

16 Camilleri, Ivan. “EU Summit: All 27 leaders to agree on Gaddafi’s departure.” 

Times of Malta. 11 March 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

17 Lindsay, David. “Malta, handful of other EU states, push for Libyan 

ceasefire.” The Malta Independent. 13 March 2011. Date accessed: 

06/02/2012. 

18 Manduca, Anthony. “Malta freezes millions in Libyan assets.” Times of 

Malta. 31 March 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

19 “EU Foreign Ministers Freeze Assets of Libyan Ports.” Malta Star. 21 

June 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

20 Bonella, Chiara. “Malta appeals for help in dealing with influx of immigrants.” 

The Malta Independent. 30 March 2011. Date accessed: 

06/02/2012. 

21 Camilleri, Ivan. “Malta isolated on urgent appeal to EU over migrants.” 

Times of Malta. 02 April 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

119

22 Mercieca, Nikki Abela. “PM hopeful other countries will take in migrants 

from Malta.” Times of Malta.13 April 2011. Date accessed: 

06/02/2012. 

23 Camilleri, Ivan. “323 migrants from Malta to be resettled in Europe.” 

Times of Malta. 12 May 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

24 Camilleri, Ivan. “EU report confirms lukewarm reaction to Malta’s 

appeal for burden-sharing.” Times of Malta. 03 June 2011. Date accessed: 

06/02/2012. 

25 “Libyan PM ready to cooperate with Malta on immigration, pollution, 

and fishing.” Malta Star. 28 November 2011. Date accessed: 

06/02/2012. 

26 Camilleri, Ivan. “Brussels puts foot down on migrants’ relocation.” 

Times of Malta. 03 December 2011. Date accessed: 06/02/2012. 

27 “Deep debt cut in third quarter 2011 for Malta.” Malta Today. 06 February 

2012. Date accessed: 09/02/2012. 

28 “Q&A Tonio Fenech: ‘Malta is no Greece.’” Malta Today. 12 November 

2011. Date accessed: 09/02/2012. 

29 Peregin, Christian. “Malta will not be ‘humiliated’ like Greece, Gonzi 

insists.” The Times of Malta. 26 Jun. 2011. Date accessed: 09/02/2012. 

30 Camilleri, Ivan. “EU delays plan for rescue of Air Malta.” Times of Malta. 

2 December 2011. Date accessed: 09/02/2012. 

120

121 

THE NETHERLANDS 

By Farbod Saatsaz van Driel 

Ethnic composition: Dutch 80.7%, Europeans 

5%, Indonesian 2.4%, Turkish 

2.2%, Surinamese 2%, Moroccan 2%, 

Caribbean 0.8%, other 4.8% (2008 

est.) 





BACKGROUND: 

The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy, with 

Queen Beatrix as head of state, and Prime Minister Mark 

Rutte of the right liberal People’s Party for Freedom and 

Democracy (VVD) at the head of government. 1 Although a 

small country with only 16 million inhabitants, the Netherlands 

has always been an active member of the international 

political arena. It was one of the founding members 

of both the EEC and NATO. 2 The Hague, seat of the Dutch 

government, is also home to many international organizations 

such as the ICC, evidence of the importance the Dutch 

place on their participation in the international arena. The 

Netherlands has a strong international trade economy with 

strong business and service sectors; trade makes up most 

of the country’s GDP (60%) with 80% of its export and 

70% of its import transactions taking place with other EU 

Member States. 3 


NRC Handelsblad 

www.nrc.nl 

NRC is the national evening paper, with a history of liberalism 

4. With 218,000 readers NRC ranks as the country’s 4 th 

most read paper. 5 

Elsevier 

www.elsevier.nl 

Elsevier is the largest weekly opinion journal of the country 

with a circulation of 150,000, and focuses on current domestic 

and international issues. The magazine claims it is 

“read by more than half a million readers, half of whom are 

so-called decision makers.” 6 

122

De Volkskrant 

www.volkskrant.nl 

Although founded as a Roman Catholic workers’ paper, The 

Volkskrant became a secular paper in 1965. De Volkskrant 

is the country’s third national daily paper in circulation. Its 

audience is mainly young progressives. 7 

FINDINGS: 


The Eurozone crisis was the most discussed topic in the 

articles. About 44% of the articles deal with this issue. 

- The population had difficulty understanding the Greek 

crisis and the decisions that politicians make in Brussels. 

The Dutch Prime Minister faced strong criticism in late July 

2011, because he was unable to accurately disclose 

how much financial support Greece was supposed to receive 

from the Eurozone and the IMF. The Prime Minister 

had mistakenly stated that Greece would receive €109 

billion, €50 billion of which would be paid by the banks. 

In reality, the sum that would be paid by the banks was 

not included in the €109 billion. In an Elsevier commentary, 

Syp Wynia writes: “During a briefing of the Parliament 

it became clear that it’s not clear what happened [in 

Brussels] and what the consequences are for the Netherlands. 

It became clear that nothing is clear.” 8 

- In December 2011, uncertainty is still the main characteristic 

of the portrayal of the Eurozone crisis with headlines 

such as: “Uncertainty remains, even after the ‘summit 

of all summits’” 9 

- Dutch voices opposing financial support to Greece argue 

that the Greeks do not work hard enough and retire too 

soon. However, some articles attempt to correct this image 

and claim: “The Telegraph [populist] propaganda 

against Greece provides Europe, including Holland, with a 

convenient and exploitable scape goat.” 10 

- In July, Standard & Poor’s downgraded France to AAA- 

status. This made the financial crisis more tangible for the 

rich countries in Europe: “The crisis hit the heart of the 

123

Eurozone because of the credit rating devaluation. One of 

the most important financiers of the European financial 

support was now under fire.” 11 

- Future of the EU: The financial crisis has raised questions 

about the powers of the EU. Amidst Euroscepticism, some 

call for a deepening of the EU. On this issue, Spanish philosopher 

Fernando Savater stated: “You need common institutions 

for common economic and education policies. 

Europe’s hard drive has to be communal. I also think Europe 

needs a common military.” 12 

Migration Regulations 

- Refugees: In January 2011, the European Court for Human 

Rights decided that member states are not allowed to 

send refugees back to Greece, even if it is their first country 

of arrival in the EU, as the handling of refugees in 

Greece is not considered to be up to EU standards. 13 

- Illegal immigration: In September, the European Commission 

demanded that the Netherlands change its policy 

with regards to deporting illegal immigrants. The Commission 

argued that it is against EU regulation to imprison 

illegal immigrants, and the Netherlands would be 

faced with financial and legal charges if this situation was 

not improved. 14 

External Affairs 

- Egypt: In February, Catherine Ashton, the High Representative 

of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security 

Policy, travelled to Egypt and Tunisia to discuss the uprisings 

with various parties. Mubarak had not yet stepped 

down at this point. Ashton faced criticism because the EU 

was unable to speak with one voice. The situation in 

Egypt caused Europe to become more involved with itself 

than Egypt: “The past few days, Europe has come up with 

one statement after the other about Egypt. Critics wonder 

where Ashton’s authority is.” 15 

- Libya: Again, the EU is unable to speak with one voice; 

instead France takes the lead in responding to the upris- 

124

ing in Libya. The NRC editorial: “Even now that the violence 

is escalating, the EU has no clear policy toward 

Gadaffi.” 16 

- Iran: In December, the EU was considering the boycott of 

Iranian oil. A decision was not made at that point because 

some member states required time to find alternate suppliers. 

At the same time, the UK asked for stricter sanctions 

on Iran because the British embassy in Tehran had 

recently been attacked by government-backed mobs. 

“This week, Europe stayed clear from an oil boycott, on 

which the UK and France had insisted. Such a move could 

cause the oil prices to rise rapidly.” 17 


The Euro crisis has been at the centre of Dutch media 

coverage on the EU. As the summary of the reporting 

shows the Dutch population has difficulty understanding 

how the government and the EU are handling the Greek 

crisis. The fact that Prime Minister Rutte caused confusion 

over the total amount of financial support that was agreed 

on in Brussels emphasized the complexity of the Greek crisis. 

The public has little confidence in a positive outcome, 

as Greece’s problems seem to be never ending. Many are 

starting to feel fed up with bailing Greece out and the Dutch 

Minister of Finance is in a continuous challenge of defending 

the decisions to financially support Greece. Many Dutch 

citizens believe that Greece will never be able to repay its 

debt to the Netherlands. 

Another widely discussed topic was that of regulation 

and governance within the EU. The Eurozone crisis 

raised questions about the future of the EU, and while Eurosceptics 

used the crisis as an argument against the EU, 

Europhiles argued that the crisis demonstrates a need for 

deeper integration and a stronger union. The Eurozone crisis 

has led to calls for a common budgetary policy and a 

move towards a stronger political union. 

Other topics involving regulation dealt with human 

rights issues such as immigration policies; the Netherlands 

has faced criticism from EU institutions for its handling of 

125

illegal immigrants. The freedom of press was another popular 

topic as Hungary imposed its controversial media laws 

just as it assumed the EU presidency. 

The EU’s external affairs, in particular, were portrayed 

negatively in the media. The reason for this is the 

EU’s apparent inability to decide upon a common action 

regarding the Arab Spring. The fact that member states 

made responses individually, or within a NATO framework, 

challenged the legitimacy of the High Representative for 

Foreign Affairs in the eyes of the public. 

126

1 "The world factbook - the Netherlands." CIA, 2011. Date of access: 

18/01/2012. 

2 ibid. 

3 "Economy and Finance." The Embassy and Consulates | Kingdom of the 

Netherlands Canada. Date of access: 18/01/2012. 

4 "Source Profile: NRC Handelsblad" Presseurop. Date of access: 

18/01/2012. 

5 "De lezers van NRC Handelsblad." Motivaction research & strategy. Date 


6 "About Elsevier." Elsevier.nl. Date of access: 08/02/2012. 

7 "Source Profile: De Volkskrant." Presseurop. Date of access: 

19/01/2012. 

8 “Syp Wynia, Weet Rutte wel wat hij afsprak in Brussel?” Elsevier.nl. 11 

August 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

9 Mark Beunderman and Melle Garschagen. “Onzekerheid blijft, ook na 

‘top der toppen.” NRC. p.13. 10 December 2011. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

10 Ingeborg Beugel. “Heus, Grieken werken 41 uur per week en zijn niet 

verder uit te persen.” NRC. p.40. May 2011. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

11 Melle Garschagen. “...ja, en dan offeren we onze eigen begroting.” NRC. 

p.20. 16 July 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

12 Pieter Giesen. “Gaat Europa uiteenvallen of groeien?” Volkskrant.nl. 29 

October 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

13 Folkert Jensma. “Principe van asielbeleid EU doorbroken.” NRC. p.3. 22 


14 Jeroen Langelaar. “Brussel eist aanpassing illegalenbeleid Nederland.” 

Elsevier.nl, 29 September 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

15 Petra de Koning. “Het gezag van Ashton lijdt onder Egypte.” NRC. p.7. 

05 February 2011. 

16 “Libische glimlachspiegel.” NRC. p.2. 12 March 2011. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

17 Hanneke Chin-a-Fo. “Olie-embargo schaadt Europa meer dan Iran.” 

NRC. p.18. 03 December 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

127

POLAND 

By Stanislaw Pelc 

Ethnic composition: Polish 96.7%, German 

0.4%, Belarusian 0.1%, Ukrainian 

0.1%, other and unspecified 2.7% 

(2002 census) 





128

BACKGROUND: 

Poland joined the EU on May 1, 2004, 1 following the 

June 2003 Referendum. On 7-8 June 77.45% of those who 

voted were in favor of the accession and 22.55% were 

against it. 2 The referendum was a victory for the pro-EU 

political parties, among them, the then ruling Social Democratic 

Party. Euroscepticism has never surfaced as a prominent 

trend in Polish mainstream political discourse, 

though it would be unfair to say that it does not exist outside 

the mainstream media. 


Gazeta Wyborcza 

www.wyborcza.pl 

With a circulation of over 300,000 copies Gazeta Wyborcza 

is, and has been, the leading Polish newspaper since the 

post-communist transition. 3 It dates back to the Round Table 

Talks of 1989. Its main aim then was to represent the 

Solidarity movement in the 1989 legislative elections. 

Journalism presented by Gazeta Wyborcza has often been 

the subject of sharp criticism from other newspapers and 

opinion leaders, because of its perceived biases. The 

strongest condemnation was levied for allegedly biased 

coverage of such issues as post-communist vetting (lustration), 

and a perceived attempt to whitewash former communists. 

Rzeczpospolita 

www.rp.pl 

With a circulation of around 200,000 copies, Rzeczpospolita 

considers itself to be the most serious competitor of Gazeta 

Wyborcza. 4 Rzeczpospolita was the first newspaper to provide 

a platform for discussion about lustration among 

journalists. In 2006, when Pawel Lisicki replaced Grzegorz 

Gauden as Rzeczpospolita’s chief editor, the newspaper 

switched its profile from moderate to more conservative. 

129

Rzeczpospolita employs many of Gazeta Wyborcza’s staunchest 

critics. 

Uważam Rze 

www.uwazamrze.pl 

A weekly magazine with a circulation of 294,000 was 

launched in February 2011 by some of the Rzeczpospolita 

journalists. It calls itself a “conservative-liberal voice in the 

public debate,” and is often critical of the current government 

and its policies. 5 Uważam Rze articles and op-eds 

frequently appear in Rzeczpospolita, and vice versa. 

Wprost 

www.wprost.pl 

Wprost is a politically centrist magazine, with a circulation 

of 179,280 copies. 6 From 2007 to February 2010, when 

Stanislaw Janecki was Wprost’s chief editor, the paper 

aligned itself with the right-wing government of the Law 

and Justice party. Since May 2010, however, when Tomasz 

Lis became editor-in-chief, the political profile of the magazine 

became moderate. 

Newsweek Polska 

www.newsweek.pl 

Newsweek Polska is one of the eight non-English editions of 

the American Newsweek magazine. With an average circulation 

of around 180,000, it is one of the biggest and most 

popular weekly magazines in Poland. 7 

FINDINGS: 

The Polish Presidency in the Council of Europe 

While some written media approached this topic with a 

good dose of criticism and condemnation, others did not. 

For instance, in Rzeczpospolita, the very idea of the EU 

presidency was portrayed as a façade. The newspaper’s 

130

contributors blamed the 2007 Lisbon Treaty for “narrowing 

the mandate of the presidency.” 8 

- Gazeta Wyborcza, on the other hand, stated that “given 

the Eurozone crisis, the half-year Polish presidency was 

probably the toughest period in the history of this enterprise.” 

9 The newspaper also noticed that there were “no 

fireworks, but also no mishaps.” 10 

- Wprost magazine tackled the subject from a slightly different 

perspective. Its editors drew attention to the geopolitics 

of East Central Europe, and postulated that the 

Polish presidency in the EU, seven years after accession, 

had to be three-dimensional. It should have promoted 

Poland, provided East Central regional leadership, and 

assisted internationally as the EU faced the financial recession. 

11 

The Bailout of Greece 

Concurrently, Greek financial crisis put into question Poland’s 

accession to the Eurozone, and Eurozone’s chances of 

survival. Rzeczpospolita concluded that “pessimists talk 

about the break-up of the Eurozone, cautious optimists say 

that only Greece will abandon the Eurozone. Optimists, 

whose numbers have been shrinking, commented that the 

Eurozone will come out of the crisis even stronger, due to 

an ever-growing fiscal union between member states.” 12 

The rhetoric presented by the newspaper has to be perceived 

as EU-cautious. 

- Newsweek Polska debated the €200 billion needed in order 

to rescue the Eurozone. According to its source, a 

Polish diplomat in Brussels, a number of countries from 

Eastern Europe – the Czech Republic and Bulgaria – declared 

that they would not financially support richer EU 

countries. Moreover, Hungary and Romania had no input, 

because they were in the process of repaying their IMF 

loans. 13 Countries outside of the Eurozone questioned the 

burden that they would have to bear for the principle of 

collective responsibility, responsibility for problems 

created elsewhere. 

131

Eastern Partnership 

Finally, the matter of Eastern Partnership (EaP) appeared 

quite regularly in the popular media’s coverage of events 

and topics. The reason for such interest was twofold. 

Firstly, it had been a brainchild of the Polish and Swedish 

diplomatic cooperation, giving it a lot of traction in the media. 

Secondly, it was widely believed that with the Polish 

EC presidency, the EaP would come to the forefront of the 

EU agenda. In fact, for the sixth month period of its presidency, 

the EaP was “one of Poland’s priorities”. 14 Moreover, 

the EaP Summit in Warsaw on 29-30 September 2011 was 

not only the most significant event organized under the 

Polish EC presidency, but also more importantly, it was 

meant to show that “the project was not forgotten, and it 

keeps on giving the EU neighbours ever growing opportunities.” 

15 

- In contrast to the optimist tone emanating from Poland, 

one of the directors of Brussels based think-tank: the Centre 

for European Policy Studies, H. Onno Ruding announced 

just two days before the summit that “given the 

situation in Belarus and Ukraine, and a lack of engagement 

and interest in the western EU countries’ side, the 

initiative seems unrealistic.” 16 

- Igor Lyubashenko, a Ukrainian political scientist who 

works at the Polish Institute of International Affairs, criticized 

the EaP in his editorial in Rzeczpospolita. He wrote 

that one of the weaknesses of so many European projects 

that deal with the EU neighbours is that they “offered 

nothing that could help the average citizen to understand 

and realize the advantages and profits that the EU integration 

brings.” 17 


The way different sources depict information varies 

slightly and ideological differences are most clearly revealed 

in editorials. This was demonstrated by strong reactions 

to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Radoslaw Sikors- 

132

ki’s, speech in Berlin, which was given at the end of 2011 

and demanded “Germany take the lead in solving the euro 

crisis.” 18 There is a clear dividing line in Polish mainstream 

media between those aligning with the current government, 

and those supporting the right-wing opposition. The 

former tends to depict the EU in a more optimistic way 

while the latter, has a tendency to criticize the government 

and its initiatives. 

In 2011, several clearly definable topics have surfaced. 

The first and most important was the Polish presidency 

of the Council of Europe. The debate that this issue 

initiated was not only over the shape that the presidency 

should assume, but also what issues the Polish government 

had to address. It was also a discussion of a larger and 

overarching issue of the role of Poland in the EU itself, and 

an evaluation of its past seven years of membership. Although 

there was a broad understanding that the image of 

Poland had improved, there was a lack of agreement as to 

the future of Poland in the EU. 

The Polish presidency was a chance for the rightwing 

opposition and their sympathizers to criticize and 

condemn the government not only for their vision of Poland 

in the EU, but also for a number of their internal policies. 

It started with an accusation over the total cost of the 

presidency, which was estimated at €110 million (almost 

as high as the French presidency in the past). 19 For many 

commentators, the sum was too excessive, given the fact 

that the role of the presidency was diminished with the ratification 

of the 2007 Lisbon Treaty. 

The real controversy occurred much later in the 

year, with the speech that the Polish Foreign Minister Radoslaw 

Sikorski gave in Berlin in November 2011. Sikorski’s 

call on Germany to rescue the Eurozone and especially 

his concluding remarks, “I fear German power less than I 

am beginning to fear German inactivity,” 20 echoed in the 

Polish media for days. It pitted those who saw the EU as an 

integrated international body and those who saw it as a 

union of nation-states against one another. 

Other prominent topics were the bailout of Greece 

and the EaP. These two were connected to the theme of the 

133

ole of Poland in the EU. They divided the political and media 

scene. The bailout of Greece was met with harsh criticism 

by the conservative media, and the right-wing opposition. 

There was a sense that the Eurozone crisis should be 

managed and solved only by Eurozone members. The left 

wing and centrist media and politicians, on the other hand, 

saw the recent financial crisis as an opportunity for Poland 

to participate in shaping the future of the EU. For them, it 

was imperative that collective action be taken, because if it 

were not, European unity would be at stake. 

The issue of EaP was approached with both optimism 

and caution. By the time Poland began its six-month 

period of Council of the EU Presidency, the issue of Greece 

was looming. As a result, even though the EaP was one of 

the top priorities of the presidency, it lost some of its initial 

momentum and relevance due to pressing financial problems 

of the Eurozone. Therefore, Poland was relatively limited 

in its ability to address this matter, especially because 

the western EU countries were more concentrated 

on their domestic economies. 

134

1 Along with Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, 

Slovakia, and Hungary. 

2 “Referendums in the accession candidate countries - performance information.” 

PolandEU.gov.pl. 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

3 “Source profile: Gazeta Wyborcza.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

4 “Source profile: Rzeczpospolita.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

5 “Source profile: Uważam Rze.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

6 “Source profile: Wprost.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

7 Source profile: Newsweek Polska.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

8 

Janke, Igor. “Prezydencja Fasadowa.” Rzeczpospolita, 14 December 


9 

Pawlicki, Jacek. “Polska dała radę.” Gazeta Wyborcza. 15 December 


10 

ibid. 

11 

Pawlicki, Jacek. “Unia po polskiej stronie mocy.” Wprost. 25 July 2011. 


12 

Walewska, Danuta. “Europa w cieniu kryzysu.” Rzeczpospolita, 30 


13 

“UE: Co z 200 mld euro na ratowanie eurolandu?” Newsweek Polska, 


14 

Łada, Agnieszka. “Partnerstwo Wschodnie to nie tylko polityka 

zagraniczna.” Gazeta Wyborcza. 23 March 2011. Date of access: 

30/12/2011. 

15 

Pszczółkowska, Dominika. “Partnerstwo Wschodnie, czyli ocalone 

słowa na ‘e’.” Gazeta Wyborcza. 26 September 2011. Date of access: 

08/01/2012. 

16 

“UE. Ekspert: Partnerstwo Wschodnie mało realistyczną inicjatywą”” 

Gazeta Wyborcza. 27 September 2011. Date of access: 08/01/2012. 

17 

Lyubashenko, Igor. “Wciąż warto stawiać na Ukrainę.” Rzeczpospolita. 


18 Eastern Approaches. “Sikorski: hero or traitor? Backwash from Berlin.” 

The Economist. 30 November 2011. Date of access: 10/12/2011. 

19 Polish Presidency Watch. 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

20 “Poland’s appeal to Germany. Sikorski: German inaction scarier than 

Germans in action.” The Economist. 29 November 2011. Date of access: 

10/01/2012. 

135

PORTUGAL 

By Camilla Guiguer 

Ethnic composition: homogeneous Mediterranean 

stock; citizens of black 

African descent; since 1990 East Europeans 





136

BACKGROUND: 

The EU has been a top priority on Portugal’s agenda 

for the past two decades. Portugal acceded to EC in early 

1986 and subsequently became one of the contracting 

states that established the EU in 1994. Portugal has consistently 

been in favor of EU expansion, including the potential 

entry of Turkey. From an economic standpoint, Portugal 

has benefited greatly from its membership to the EU as it 

has been able to provide low-cost labor to the rest of Europe, 

thus attracting investment. With the entry of the 

East-Central European states in recent years, this competitive 

advantage was lost and Portugal’s economy has floundered. 

In the first half of 2011 Portugal became the third 

EU country to request a financial bailout from the EU. 


Expresso 

www.expresso.sapo.pt 

Expresso is a weekly newspaper, published on Saturdays, 

that enjoys the largest circulation of all newspapers in the 

Portugal, with more than 136 000 copies sold weekly. 1 It is 

chiefly known for its editorial independence and inquisitive 

political reporting, making it a good newspaper of reference. 

Jornal de Noticias 

www.jn.pt 

Jornal de Noticias is a daily newspaper that is widely circulated. 

It sells just over 109 000 copies daily. 2 The newspaper 

is owned by Controlinveste – a predominantly centrist 

company and thus, this newspaper’s political affiliation is 

also centrist. 3 

137

Diario de Noticias 

www.dn.pt 

Diario de Noticias is another popular newspaper circulated 

daily throughout the country. It is predominantly considered 

the country's most prestigious publication. 4 Like Jornal 

de Noticias, this publication is also owned by Controlinveste. 

5 

FINDINGS: 

EU financial aid to Portugal 

Due to the country’s economic difficulties and the impact of 

the Eurocrisis, the topic of EU financial support was a prevalent 

one in the Portuguese media throughout 2011. 

- Reports early on in the year indicated that the EIB (European 

Investment Bank) stated its desire to help the floundering 

economies of Eurozone countries, of which Portugal 

was included. 6 

- The EIB declared its intention to aid Portugal in order to 

prevent from the country from falling into a recession, as 

was predicted if economic conditions in Portugal continued 

to worsen. 7 Germany and France echoed this concern 

by insisting that the country accept financial aid as soon 

as possible. 8 

- In the later half of 2011, data from the Transatlantic 

Trends survey indicated that majority of Portuguese citizens 

(58%) considered the euro ‘bad’ for the economy 

while 80% admitted they had been affected by the economic 

crisis. 

- Despite these trends the majority surveyed (68%) still 

supported the EU. 9 The data was released shortly before 

the EU allotted EUR 2 billion in financial aid to Portugal in 

September 2011, meant to ease the sustainability of its 

debt and improve the liquidity of the country. 10 The Eurozone 

countries expressed confidence in Portugal’s capacity 

to complete the financial aid program set out by the 

‘troika’ (the EU, the ECB, and the IMF) and applauded the 

138

efforts of the Portuguese government consolidating public 

funds and initiating the necessary structural reforms. 11 

Causes of the Eurozone crisis 

Considering the magnitude of the Eurocrisis and Portugal’s 

floundering economy, it is not surprising that the topic of 

potential causes of the economic downturn were widely 

discussed in Portugal’s domestic media. 

- While some reporting focused on explaining the difficulties 

and challenges facing EU leaders, 12 others indicated 

the shortcomings of the EU resulted from a lack of leadership. 

13 Certain reports called for the increased centralization 

of the EU, in hopes that this would prevent a repeat 

of Eurocrisis. 14 

Portugal and the Future of the EU 

Another widely discussed topic in Portuguese media addressed 

the country’s disadvantaged economic status in the 

EU. 15 16 17 

- Although certain reports focused on distinguishing Portugal’s 

economic situation from that of Greece and Ireland 

18 a majority stressed the lack of foreign investment in 

Portugal and its negative impact on the nation’s econo- 

my. 

139 

19 20 

- In mid 2011, economist Nouriel Roubini stated that economic 

recovery for Portugal would be a long and difficult 

ordeal, however he expressed hope that an agreement 

could be reached with the EU, the ECB and the IMF, that 

would enact less severe austerity measures than those 

imposed in Greece and Ireland. 21 

- Nevertheless, most of the reporting on the topic of Portugal 

and the future of the EU remained optimistic, indicating 

that the EU would contain the crisis. 22 


Over the course of 2011, Portugal’s relationship 

with the EU has been significantly affected. Surprisingly,

Portuguese faith still exists in the supranational organization. 

In domestic media, the EU’s crisis was increasingly 

attributed to its internal workings – primarily in the areas 

of leadership. At first, the Portuguese perception of this 

problem was nominal, as there was hope of a turnaround 

after policy implementations took effect. For example, in 

February 2011, Expresso labeled the problems that leaders 

were facing as “big challenges” rather than insurmountable 

tasks. 23 The media’s focus remained on the EU leaders 

themselves rather than the EU as an institution. Gradually, 

the economic crisis received greater attention in the media 

and episodes of leaders meeting to discuss the EU’s next 

course of action were highlighted. Perhaps a somewhat 

naïve idea, but seemingly accepted among the Portuguese 

population, was that the solution to the Eurozone situation 

could be found in changing the organizational structure 

and governance of the EU itself. One Jornal de Noticias article 

from October 4 th stated that the economic governance 

of the region should be more preventative and punitive. 24 

By the year’s end, the media had clearly labeled leadership 

as a key contributing factor in the Eurocrisis, focusing on 

statements like Sarkozy’s “deficit of leadership” as quoted 

in a Diario de Noticias’ article from 3 November. 25 

The Portuguese media attributed the majority of 

the Eurocrisis to the organizational structure and leadership 

failings, of the EU. Throughout 2011 Portugal’s faith in 

the EU’s determination to help it was fairly consistent. As 

early as January, there were articles stating that the EIB 

wanted to help Portugal avoid a recession. 26 This element 

of assistance appears throughout the year and rarely can 

one find articles depicting the EU as giving up on Portugal. 

Assisting Portugal was portrayed as the EU’s duty in many 

articles as seen by Expresso’s September 22 nd publication 

stating: “The EU will pay 4 Billion in financial obligations to 

Portugal and Ireland”. 27 Note the usage of the term ‘obligations’ 

which exemplified the perception in Portugal of the 

EU’s commitment to Portugal’s economic survival. In sum, 

Portugal has approached the shortcomings of the EU with 

less vitriol than expected, partly due to the fragile status of 

the Portuguese economy. In a sense the message seems to 

140

e: “it’s a shame its turning out this way – but at least they 

are trying with good intentions.” 

Another important topic was Portugal’s position as 

one of the weakest economies in the EU. Articles such as 

Diario de Noticias’ March 11 publication express national 

concern for the status of the Portuguese economy. It labeled 

Portugal as ‘one of the most “closed economies” in 

the EU. 28 This view continued throughout the year, with 

several articles expressing stronger opinions by the end of 

the year, such as a Jornal de Noticias article from December 

2 nd entitled “The Gate of Hell”. 29 The article stated that the 

EU’s organizational faults falls on the shoulders of the most 

fragile economies in the EU, of which Portugal was included. 

In conclusion, the Portuguese media depicted the 

Eurozone crisis as primarily the result of leadership and 

organizational deficiencies in the EU itself. Portugal was 

portrayed as one of the economies most negatively affected 

by the crisis. That being said, throughout the year Portugal 

still held the EU in a positive light. These views were relatively 

consistent throughout 2011. However, as the Portuguese 

economy worsened, there was an increase in the 

negative outlook towards the situation in the Eurozone, 

reporting on which continued into 2012. 

141

1 Advameg, Inc.. "Portugal Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers - television, 

circulation, stations, number, print, freedom, mass media." Press 

Reference. Date of access: 28/12/2011. 

2 Advameg, Inc.. "Portugal Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers - television, 

circulation, stations, number, print, freedom, mass media." Press 

Reference.. Date of access: 28/12/2011. 

3 “Source Profile: Jornal de Notícias.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

4 Advameg, Inc.. "Portugal Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers - 

television, circulation, stations, number, print, freedom, mass media." 

Press Reference. Date of access: 28/12/2011. 

5 “Source Profile: Diario de Noticias." Presseurop. Date of access: 

30/03/2012. 

6 “Banco Europeu de Investimentos quer ajudar Portugal a evitar 

recessão.” Jornal de Noticias. 04 January 2011. Date of access: 

05/01/2012. 


recessão.” Jornal de Noticias. 04 January 2011. Date of access: 

05/01/2012. 

8 “Euro/Crise: Alemanha e França querem que Portugal aceite ajuda 

financeira - imprensa internacional.” Diario de Noticias. 08 January 


9 “Meireles, Luisa. Portugueses contra o euro mas a favor da União 

Europeia.” Expresso. 14 September 2011. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

10 “UE emite eur4 mil milhões em obrigações para Portugal e Irlanda.” 

Expresso. 22 September 2011. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

11 “Eurogrupo expressa confiança na capacidade de Portugal em cumprir 

programa.” Diario de Noticias. 16 September 2011. Date of access: 

09/01/2012. 

12 “UE: Gabriel Bernardino diz que supervisores europeus enfrentam 

"grandes desafios".” Expresso. 03 February 2011. Date of access: 

05/01/2012. 

13 “Euro/Crise: UE tem problema de "défice de liderança" - Sarkozy.” 

Diario de Noticias. 03 November 2011. Date of access: 09/01/2012. 

14 “Governação económica da UE será mais preventiva e punitiva.” Jornal 

de Noticias. 04 October 2011. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

15 "UE está em risco se o Euro estiver em risco". Diario de Noticias. 18 


16 “Euro/crise: "A Europa está em perigo", presidente polaco da UE.” 


17 “À porta do inferno.” Jornal de Noticias. 02 December 2011. Date of 

access: 05/01/2012. 

18 “Governo diz que acordo demonstra que Portugal está melhor do que 

a Grécia e Irlanda.” Jornal de Noticias. 04 May 2011. Date of access: 

05/01/2012. 

142

19 “Euro/Crise: Portugal é das economias mais fechadas da Europa - Ana 

Teresa Lehmann.” Diario de Noticias. 11 March 2011. Date of access: 

09/01/2012. 

20 “Portugal foi o país da União Europeia que mais desinvestiu.” Expresso. 


21 Mariano, Fatima. “Nouriel Roubini diz que acordo com a troika é o 

caminho certo para Portugal.” Jornal de Noticias. 04 May 2011. Date of 

access: 05/01/2012. 

22 “UE tomará medidas fortes para conter a crise da dívida.” Expresso. 04 


23 “UE: Gabriel Bernardino diz que supervisores europeus enfrentam 

"grandes desafios".” Expresso. 03 February 2011. Date of access: 

05/01/2012. 

24 “Governação económica da UE será mais preventiva e punitiva.” Jornal 

de Noticias. 04 October 2011. Date of access: 05/01/2012. 

25 “Euro/Crise: UE tem problema de "défice de liderança" - Sarkozy.” 

Diario de Noticias. 03 November 2011. Date of access: 09/01/2012. 


recessão.” Jornal de Noticias. 04 January 2011. Date 

of access:05/01/2012. 

27 “UE emite eur4 mil milhões em obrigações para Portugal e Irlanda.” 


28 “Euro/Crise: Portugal é das economias mais fechadas da Europa - Ana 

Teresa Lehmann.” Diario de Noticias. 11 March 2011. Date of access: 

09/01/2012. 

29 “À porta do inferno.” Jornal de Noticias. 02 December 2011. Date of 

access: 05/01/2012. 

143

ROMANIA 

By Alexandra Savilo 

Ethnic composition: Romanian 89.5%, 

Hungarian 6.6%, Roma 2.5%, Ukrainian 

0.3%, German 0.3%, Russian 

0.2%, Turkish 0.2%, other 0.4% (2002 

census) 





144

BACKGROUND: 

Located in South-eastern Europe, Romania currently 

functions as a unitary semi-presidential republic. Shortly 

after the end of the Second World War Romania was forcibly 

turned into a socialist republic. The Ceausescu regime 

collapsed in 1989, leaving Romania politically and economically 

fragile. Given its susceptibility to corruption, Romania’s 

growth and development was slow. In 1993, four 

years after its transition to democracy, Romania applied for 

EU membership and became the first post-communist 

country to have official relations with the EU. 1 In 1995 it 

became an Associated State of the EU. 2 During the 2000s 

several reforms were implemented to prepare for the EU 

accession that it received in 2004. 3 Romania finally became 

a Member State on January 1, 2007. 4 


Domestically, Romania is viewed as having one of the most 

dynamic media markets in all of Southeastern Europe. 5 

However true this may be, the constitution has imposed 

limits upon the freedom of expression. More specifically, it 

limits reporting that places Romania in a derogatory context. 

6 In 2010, Reporters Without Borders (RSF) announced 

that Romania “now considers the media a threat 

to national security and plans to legally censor its activities.” 

7 

Adevarul 

www.adevarul.ro 

Arguably the oldest and most well read newspaper in Romania, 

Adevarul was founded in 1871 and has evolved in a 

manner similar to the transformation Romania has undergone. 

8 Its current daily circulation is 187,000 and is owned 

by Dinu Patriciu, a prominent Romanian businessman and 

former politician. 9 Adevarul’s idelogical stance conflicts 

with the beliefs of its founder. 10 Patriciu, founder of the National 

Liberal Party, follows a centre-right liberal policy 

145

and the newspaper upholds a strong commitment to the 

free market. 11 Socially conservative, and fully privatised, it 

is one of the most popular and trusted press outlets in Romania. 

12 

Evenimentul Zilei 

www.evz.ro 

Founded shortly after the transition in 1992, Evenimentul 

Zilei has a daily circulation of 150,000. 13 It is not only one 

of the leading newspapers in Romania, but also one of the 

most accessed internet pages. In the early 2000s, the Swiss 

press conglomerate Ringier owned it; however, journalists 

complained that the foreign owners were interfering editorially 

and lessening the political coverage and toning down 

negative reports of the government. 14 This caused a considerable 

scandal, after which the paper became one of the 

most fervent attackers of government corruption. 15 After 

the 2004 elections, the paper began changing its editorial 

policy to become a tabloid. 16 In 2007, it came under the 

ownership of by Bobby Paunescu, a director and screenwriter. 

17 The newspaper now addresses largely urban and 

educated public. 18 

Gandul 

www.gandul.info 

Gandul was created in 2005 by Mircea Dinescu, a former 

writer for Scintea (the only newspaper published during 

the communist era). Since then, it has converted to an online 

source, and records 35,000 daily hits. 19 In 2006, MediaPro 

(based in the United States) took over the majority 

of the company. 20 MediaPro owns many magazines, websites 

and TV channels both in Romania and Moldova. 21 Central 

European Media Enterprises own 95% of their Media- 

Pro’s stock. 22 

146

FINDINGS: 

These sources yielded over 500 articles related to “Romania 

and the European Union”, “EU funds”, “Euro” and 

“Schengen”. Out of these, 200 were selected randomly for 

the purpose of this study, with 60 being quoted below. 

Accession into the Schengen Zone 

Without question, the topic most widely discussed was 

Romania’s difficult path to accession into the Schengen 

Zone. 

- In the beginning of the year, French and German interior 

ministers demanded the postponement of Romania’s accession. 

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 During the EU’s spring hearing, 

Romania’s accession was delayed due to the country’s 

problems with corruption. 31 32 33 Romanian president Basescu 

urged the government not to denounce the Cooperation 

& Verification Mechanism on justice developed by 

the European Commission as well as not to block Croatia’s 

accession to the EU as a response to Romania’s delay 

in accession to the Schengen. 34 35 Following the original 

delay, Germany, France and the EU tried to reach a compromise 

that would allow Romania’s accession in the 

fall. 36 On 22 September, however, the Polish Minister of 

the Interior said the decision to integrate Romania into 

Schengen was impossible at this time. 37 38 39 Schengen 

Head of the Administration and Interior, Marian Tutilescu 

reported after the hearing that there is a 90% chance that 

Romania will receive Schengen accession in 2012. 40 41 42 43 

44 

EU Funds: Amounts, Allocation and Absorption 

The second most discussed topic in Romania-EU relations 

pertains to EU funds. The funds are important, as they affect 

Romania’s development. 

- The negotiation about the future budget cycle (2013- 

2020) began in 2011. 45 By the end of 2011, Romania had 

absorbed a low percentage of the European funds de- 

147

voted to it; even though it was only a quarter of what had 

been allocated to Romania, the 2011 spending doubled 

compared to the previous four years. 46 Given this, it was 

reported that Romania could become a net contributor of 

the EU. Furthermore, the reduced use of funds could 

serve as an argument for limitations on future funding. 47 

48 Despite the information that Romania could become a 

net contributor of the EU, it remained in last place during 

2011 in both East and Central Europe to have access to 

EU funds with an absorption rate of 7%. 49 As a result, 

Romania created a Ministry of European Funds, responsible 

for improving the absorption rate of funds as well as 

attracting further funding. 50 Later in the year, the EU declared 

that Romania’s term of repayment of the EU funds 

had been reduced from 60 to 45 days. 51 Per schedule, in 

the fall Romania received €1.2 billion as its fourth installment 

of European Commission loans. 52 53 In the latter 

part of the year the European Parliament increased cofinancing 

for European projects, companies and authorities 

in Romania. 54 55 56 

The Ability for Romanian Citizens to Work Across the 

EU 

Another widely reported topic focused on work restrictions 

imposed on Romanian workers within the EU. 

- Romanians currently cannot access jobs in 15 EU countries, 

while Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Malta, and 

Luxembourg proposed employment restrictions for Romanians 

that will begin in 2012. 57 58 59 60 61 62 In 2011, 

Germany and Austria opened employment doors to Eastern 

Europe, excluding Romania. 63 64 Romanians will regain 

employment access to the aforementioned nations in 

2014. 65 EU States were forced to grant employment 

access to Romanians by the end of 2011. 66 

Adoption of the Euro 

Though this topic was significantly less discussed when 

compared to the other leading issues mentioned in this report, 

it is nonetheless included due to its significant impor- 

148

tance to the evolving relationship between Romania and 

the EU. 

- A new convergence report from the European Commission 

outlined the goals and timelines of when Romania 

can adopt the euro. The report specified that Romania 

hopes to adopt the euro for 2015 as it already meets two 

of the five convergence criteria of the exchange rate and 

public debt. 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 


Though deteriorating throughout the course of 

2011, Romania’s relationship with the EU generally finished 

on a hesitantly hopeful note. The most widely debated 

topic throughout the year was Romania’s accession 

to the Schengen Group. Initially, France and Germany, with 

the approval of other EU Member States, demanded the 

postponement of Romania’s accession to the Schengen 

Zone due to its current corruption and problems with the 

Roma population. 76 77 Though this development was not a 

surprise to Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs Teodor 

Baconschi, he still made the accusation that the reason for 

such a decision lies in the inherent double standard within 

the EU. 78 79 80 He therefore applied pressure on the EU, and 

argued that “regulations should not be changed to block 

accession”. 81 82 In response to Baconschi’s actions, as well 

as surmounting Euroscepticism, EU Member States adjusted 

their stance on Romania’s Schengen accession and 

agreed to another hearing later in 2011. 83 No agreement 

was reached upon the second Schengen accession hearing, 

despite Romania’s completion of the criteria required to 

accede. 84 There is a lack of reporting of the discussion on 

the specific reason why Romania was not admitted, aside 

from the vague response from Finland and the Netherlands 

stating that the issue was political and electoral. 85 Generally 

frustrated, Romanian EU officials consistently presented 

Romania as a victim of EU bullying and that their opinions 

were clearly in the right as would be seen in the predicted 

successful accession in the spring of 2012. 86 

149

Over the course of the year, most articles on Romania’s 

attempt to adopt the euro by 2015 referred to it as an undesirable 

but necessary move. The main reason for the 

adoption of the currency is further integration with the EU 

community, and the change in status from a Member State 

that is simply “helped along”. 87 While this is the argument 

most publicised, there is an uncertainty about the adoption 

of the euro, as it might be used only as a national fiscal instrument 

during the upcoming presidential campaign. 88 

Romania’s view of the EU in relation to availability and 

use of EU funds has fluctuated greatly in 2011. Ambitiously, 

Romanian EU officials planned twice the normal absorption 

funds when compared to those received in the past 

four years. They used the argument that Romania had the 

lowest absorption rate in East and Central Europe. 89 However, 

the plan was difficult to implement as the EU changed 

Romania’s terms of repayment from 60 to 45 days. 90 In an 

effort to appear more responsible, Romania imitated Bulgaria 

when it was granted the capacity to have a Minister 

for European Funds. 91 While EU officials were quoted to be 

happy with this development, it is as of yet uncertain to 

what extent such developments have aided Romania in attracting 

EU funds. 

The inability for Romanians to work in approximately 

15 Member States beginning in January 2012 has caused a 

great deal of tension between Romania and the EU. Some 

nations have created extensions of their restrictions until 

2014, claiming that economic recession prevents absorption 

of new workers, or temporary migrant workers. 92 Other 

nations such as Austria and Germany are distrustful of 

newly acceded nations and believe that Romania should 

wait as long as the other post-communist countries did: 

seven years after full accession (the maximum amount of 

time according to EU law). 93 Many Romanian journalists 

expressed frustration about their nationals’ inability to 

work in other countries. 94 

150

1 "Romania - EU-Romania Relations." European Comission - Enlargement 

. European Union. 15 January 2012. Date of access: 25/01/2012. 

2 ibid. 

3 ibid. 

4 ibid. 

5 "Romania Country Profile." BBC News. 07 February 2012. Date of 

access: 19/02/2012. 

6 ibid. 

7 ibid. 

8 "Source Profile: Adevarul." Presseurop. Date of access: 15/01/2012. 

9 ibid. 

10 ibid. 

11 ibid. 

12 ibid. 

13 "Source Profile: Evenimentul Zilei." Presseurop. Date of access: 

15/01/2012. 

14 ibid. 

15 ibid. 

16 ibid. 

17 ibid. 

18 ibid. 

19 "Source Profile: Gandul." Presseurop. Date of access: 15/01/2012. 

20 ibid. 

21 ibid. 

22 ibid. 

23 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Exclusiv: Replica României pentru Schengen." Adevarul. 


24 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Euro-topics/ Onoarea lui Botiş, dezonoarea României." 

Adevarul. 20 April 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

25 Toma, Bianca. "NU României şi Bulgariei în Schengen: Danemarca ar 

trebui să ceară amânarea aderării celor două ţări, spun euroaleşii danezi." 


26 "România către Franţa: "Lăsaţi-ne să intrăm în Schengen!"." Evenimentul 

Zilei. 20 January 2011. Date of access: 7/02/2012. 

27 Toader, Flavius. "Ministru francez: Aderarea României şi Bulgariei la 

Schengen ameninţă securitatea Europei." Evenimentul Zilei. 20 January 


28 Florea, Raul. "România joacă la rupere cu Franţa şi Germania. Stolojan 

îl traduce pe Baconschi: apar şi ameninţări de genul „uite ce am putea 

face şi noi!”." Gandul. 01 March 2011. Date of access: 07/02/2012. 

29 Florea, Raul. "Cum au plănuit parlamentarii români să hărţuiască 

Germania care nu ne vrea în Schengen: „S-a întors roata!”." Gandul. 01 


30 Voiculescu, Loredana. "Băsescu: România „nu aruncă cu pietre” în 

Franţa şi Germania, dar nu mai aruncă nici cu bani." Gandul. 01 May 


151

31 Voicu, Anca, Eva Galambos, and Magda Crisan. "Alba-neagra cu 

amânarea Schengen." Adevarul. 07 January 2011. Date of access: 

16/01/2012. 

32 Unknown. "Aderarea României la Schengen, exploatată de grupările 

criminale." Evenimentul Zilei. 4 May 2011. Date of access: 7/02/2012. 

33 Cartianu, Grigore. "Spaţiul Schengen al Lalelelor." Adevarul. 18 September 


34 Cochino, Adrian. "Băsescu schimbă strategia României în dosarul 

Schengen." Evenimentul Zilei. 06 January 2011. 16/01/2012. 

35 Florea, Raul. "71 comentarii 29 afişări Home News Cum au plănuit 

parlamentarii români să hărţuiască Germania care nu ne vrea în 

Schengen: „S-a întors roata!”." Gandul. 1 April 2011. Date of access: 

7/02/2012. 

36 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Teodor Baconschi ministru de externe: „E posibil un 

compromis pentru Schengen“." Adevarul. 13 May 2011. Date of access: 

16/02/2012. 

37 Pop, Luciana, and Laura Ciobanu. "Decizia privind aderarea României 

la spațiul Schengen, amânată. Polonia anunță eșecul discuțiilor." Evenimentul 

Zilei. 22 September 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

38 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Euro-topics/ 22 septembrie 2011: o victorie a Anti- 

Europei." Adevarul. 22 September 2011. Date of access: 6/02/2012. 

39 Gachi, Gabriel. "EDITORIALUL EVZ: Neintrarea în Schengen, un 

accident mortal ." Evenimentul Zilei. 22 September 2011. Date of 

access: 06/02/2012. 

40 Unknown. "Marian Tutilescu, şeful Departamentului Schengen din 

MAI: România are 90% şanse să adere la Schengen în trepte, în 2012." 

Gandul. 16 November 2011. Date of access: 16/02/2012. 

41 Mătieş, Simona. "Cristian Diaconescu are două soluţii pentru aderarea 

mai rapidă a României la Schengen." Evenimentul Zilei. 20 December 

2011. Date of access : 06/02/ 2012. 

42 Stancu, Dan. "România este ţinută la uşa Schengen doar de guvernul 

de la Haga." Evenimentul Zilei. 12 December 2011. Date of access : 

06/02/2012. 

43 Stancu, Dan. "Băsescu, despre neprimirea României în Schengen: „E un 

abuz al Olandei!”." Evenimentul Zilei. 09 December 2011. Date of 

access : 07/02/2012. 

44 Pecheanu, Gabriel. "Traian Băsescu l-a primit la Cotroceni pe Herman 

van Rompuy, preşedintele Consiliului European. Rompuy: Sunt perfect 

conştient că obiectivul accedării la Schengen este de o importanţă 

esenţială." Gandul. 24 February 2011. Date of access: 07/02/2012. 



46 Vlad, Adina. "Vrem bani UE într-un an cât în ultimii patru." Adevarul. 

01 May 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

152

47 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Comisarul Dacian Cioloş: Problemele României, folosite 

de cei care vor reducerea finanţărilor europene." Adevarul. 02 May 


48 "România trebuie să respecte noile reguli ale jocului pentru a nu 

pierde fondurile europene." Evenimentul Zilei. 21 June 2011. Date of 

access: 07/02/2012. 

49 Vlad, Adina. "Codaşi la absorbţia de fonduri UE." Adevarul. 19 May 


50 Toma, Bianca. "UE ne dă undă verde pentru ministerul fondurilor UE." 

Adevarul. 30 June 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

51 Bărbulescu, Ovidiu. "Banii de la Uniunea Europeană ar putea veni în 

maximum 45 de zile." Gandul. 18 January 2011. Date of access: 

17/01/2012. 

52 Chelu, Alexandra. "România a primit a patra tranşă de la Comisia 

Europeană, în valoare de 1,2 miliarde de euro." Gandul. 24 March 


53 Florescu, Raduca. "Uniunea Europeană ne-a acordat tranşa a patra, în 

valoare de 1,2 milarde euro." Evenimentul Zilei. 24 March 2011. Date of 

access : 07/02/2012. 

54 Scărișoreanu, Mona. "Mai mulţi bani pentru proiectele cu fonduri UE." 

Evenimentul Zilei. 12 December 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

55 "România va accesa mai uşor fonduri UE. VEZI cum ne ajută Comisia 

Europeană." Evenimentul Zilei. 01 August 2011. Date of access: 

07/02/2012. 

56 Scărișoreanu , Mona. "UE ne trimite bani în avans pentru proiectele 

europene." Evenimentul Zilei. 05 December 2011. Date of access: 

07/02/2012. 

57 Bechir, Mariana, and Bianca Toma. "Unde mai putem munci în Europa." 

Adevarul. 22 November 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

58 Bojan, Ioana. "0 comentarii 112 afişări Home International VEŞTI 

PROASTE: Irlanda şi Belgia au decis prelungirea RESTICŢIILE impuse 

ROMÂNILOR şi bulgarilor pe piaţa muncii." Gandul. 17 December 


59 Costache, Aura. "Un ministrul olandez propune menţinerea 

restricţiilor de muncă pentru români." Adevarul. 16 November 2011. 


60 Vidu, Valentin. "Statele care menţin restricţiile pe piaţa muncii pentru 

români şi bulgari, la 7 ani de la aderarea României şi Bulgariei." 

Gandul. 05 May 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

61 "Luxemburg prelungește restricțiile pe piața muncii pentru români și 

bulgari." Evenimentul Zilei. 23 December 2011. Date of access: 

17/01/2012. 

62 Fusoi, Alexandra. "UE solicită Olandei să clarifice o decizie locală care 

limitează dreptul de şedere al românilor." Gandul. 30 July 2011. Date 


153

63 Toader, Flavius. "Germania şi Austria deschid graniţele pentru 

muncitorii din estul UE. Nu şi pentru români." Evenimentul Zilei. 01 


64 "Austria vrea să menţină restricţiile pentru muncitorii români şi 

bulgari până în 2014." Evenimentul Zilei. 17 November 2011. Date of 

access: 17/01/2012. 

65 Bechir, Mariana, and Bianca Toma. "Unde mai putem munci în 

Europa." Adevarul. 22 November 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

66 "Parlamentul European: Statele UE trebuie să permită accesul 

românilor şi bulgarilor pe piaţa muncii până la sfârşitul lui 2011." 

Gandul. 10 October 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

67 "În câteva săptămâni aflăm când vom trece la euro." Evenimentul Zilei. 


68 Bălăceanu, Florentina. "Europa de Est amână trecerea la moneda euro." 


69 Bâtcă, Ana. "Isărescu: Un leu puternic, puntea către euro." Evenimentul 

Zilei. 10 March 2011. Date of access: 07/02/2012. 

70 "De ce e important să adoptăm euro în 2015, în viziunea ministrului 

Finanţelor." Evenimentul Zilei. 10 June 2011. Date of access: 

16/01/2012. 

71 Puşcaş, Vasile. "România şi „Pactul pentru Euro“." Adevarul. 21 March 


72 Marincea, Ovidiu. "Euro-Boii." Adevarul. 01 May 2011. Date of access: 

07/02/2012. 

73 Radu, Marius. "Munchau: Pentru a adopta euro România are nevoie de 

o situaţie sustenabilă, nu de criterii îndeplinite." Gandul. 30 November 


74 Bâtcă, Ana. "Termenul 2015? România nu va adera la euro în 

următorii cinci ani!." Evenimentul Zilei. 05 October 2011. Date of 

access: 07/02/2012. 

75 Boboc, Dinu. "Presa internaţională: România vrea în continuare euro, 

în ciuda problemelor zonei." Evenimentul Zilei. 28 November 2011. 


76 Toma, Bianca. "NU României şi Bulgariei în Schengen: Danemarca ar 

trebui să ceară amânarea aderării celor două ţări, spun euroaleşii 

danezi." Adevarul. 28 April 2011. Date of access: 07/02/2012. 

77 Unknown. "România către Franţa: "Lăsaţi-ne să intrăm în Schengen!"." 

Evenimentul Zilei. 20 January 2011. Date of access: 07/02/2012. 

78 ibid. 

79 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Exclusiv: Replica României pentru Schengen." Adevarul. 




81 Cochino, Adrian. "Băsescu schimbă strategia României în dosarul 

Schengen." Evenimentul Zilei. 06 January 2011. Date of access: 

16/01/2012. 

154

82 Florea, Raul. "71 comentarii 29 afişări Home News Cum au plănuit 

parlamentarii români să hărţuiască Germania care nu ne vrea în 

Schengen: „S-a întors roata!”. Gandul. 01 April 2011. Date of access: 

07/02/2012. 

83 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Teodor Baconschi ministru de externe: „E posibil un 

compromis pentru Schengen“." Adevarul. 13 May 2011. Date of access: 

16/01/2012. 

84 Pop, Luciana, and Laura Ciobanu. "Decizia privind aderarea României 

la spațiul Schengen, amânată. Polonia anunță eșecul discuțiilor." Evenimentul 

Zilei. 22 September 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

85 ibid. 

86 Nahoi, Ovidiu. "Euro-topics/ 22 septembrie 2011: o victorie a Anti- 

Europei." Adevarul. 22 September 2011. Date of access: 06/02/2012. 

87 Puşcaş, Vasile. "România şi „Pactul pentru Euro“." Adevarul. 21 March 


88 Bălăceanu, Florentina. "Europa de Est amână trecerea la moneda euro." 


89 Vlad, Adina. "Vrem bani UE într-un an cât în ultimii patru." Adevarul. 

01 May 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

90 Bărbulescu, Ovidiu. "Banii de la Uniunea Europeană ar putea veni în 

maximum 45 de zile." Gandul. 18 January 2011. Date of access: 

17/01/2012. 

91 Toma, Bianca. "UE ne dă undă verde pentru ministerul fondurilor UE." 


92 Bechir, Mariana, and Bianca Toma. "Unde mai putem munci în 

Europa." Adevarul. 22 November 2011. Date of access: 17/01/2012. 

93 Toader, Flavius. "Germania şi Austria deschid graniţele pentru 

muncitorii din estul UE. Nu şi pentru români." Evenimentul Zilei. 01 


94 "Luxemburg prelungește restricțiile pe piața muncii pentru români și 

bulgari." Evenimentul Zilei. 23 December 2011. Date of access: 

17/01/2012. 

155

THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION 

By Amina Abdullayeva 

Ethnic composition: Russian 79.8%, Tatar 

3.8%, Ukrainian 2%, Bashkir 1.2%, 

Chuvash 1.1%, other or unspecified 

12.1% (2002 census) 

Population: 138,082,178 (July 2012 

est.) 


156

BACKGROUND: 

The relationship between the EU and Russia has 

been one of conflict. As an authoritarian state, Russia does 

not share many of the EU’s values. Its government understands 

international relations in the Westphalian sense, 

where state sovereignty is equated to territoriality and the 

exclusion of foreign actors from domestic governance. 

In a speech given in Bologna, Italy on 20 April 2007, 

EU Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson said that the EU- 

Russia relationship contains a "level of misunderstanding 

or even mistrust we have not seen since the end of the Cold 

War." 1 In general, there is a lot of distrust between Europe 

and Russia. 2 The reason for this distrust lies in the geopolitical 

competition over certain overlapping spheres of influence 

in countries such as Ukraine and Georgia, as well as 

the question of energy exports from Russia. Secondary to 

this is the EU’s criticism of human rights violations in Russia 

and the Kremlin’s intolerance of “the slightest comment 

on its internal policy.” 3 The most recent survey of Russian 

public opinion from 2010, suggests that 55% of Russian 

citizens view the EU positively (while only 13% regard it 

negatively, with the rest divided between unsure - 23% - 

and people who do not know what the EU is - 9%), and 

46% believe that the EU is not interested in a strong Russia 

and would prefer that Russia stays weak. 4 


Эхо Москвы 

www.echo.msk.ru 

Ekho is considered to be one of the few truly independent 

media outlets in Russia. 5 It tries to report on and illuminate 

the issues as objectively as possible by inviting all points of 

view, including some that are harshly critical of the government. 

According to its editor-in-chief, Aleksey Venediktov, 

Ekho is “not an opposition radio, but an information 

radio.” 6 It was the most cited news source (among all 

newspapers, magazines, and radio- and TV-stations – 6000 

157

in total) in Russia in 2011. 7 Despite being a radio-station, 

transcripts of its programs are available online, as well as 

blogs, surveys, news, and notable articles from foreign 

press sources (in translation). 

Lenta.ru 

www.lenta.ru 

Lenta.ru is one of the most popular internet-based news 

resources in Russia. It gets 100,000 hits a day on average, 

with approximately 30,000,000 hits in 2011. 8 Extensive 

research yielded no information indicating any sort of political 

bias on its part. Its high popularity in the blogosphere 

(evidenced by the frequency of its articles appearing 

on blogs, Facebook, and other types of social media) 

also testify to its objectivity and esteem among the 

readership. It is updated 24 hours a day. 

Izvestia 

www.izvestia.ru 

Izvestia is another widely read daily newspaper. In 2011 it 

was the third most-cited Russian newspaper. 9 It is available 

in print, with a daily circulation of 234,500, 10 and 

online. It is also considered a trusted source. 

These three sources were searched for the combination of 

the words “European Union” and “Russia” for the period 

from 1 January 2011 to 1 January 2012. Ekho yielded 320 

results, of which 55 were relevant to this study; Lenta.ru 

returned 364 results, of which 28 were found pertinent; 

Izvestia produced 570 results, of which 36 were used for 

the current analysis. 

FINDINGS: 

Over the course of 2011, media outlets were dominated by 

the following topics, which particularly influenced Russia- 

EU relations in that period: 

158

Elections in Belarus 

Russia and the EU compete for influence in their 

neighbouring countries, what Russia calls its “nearabroad.” 

A prominent illustration of this ongoing competition 

was the case of Belarus. 

- President of Belarus Aleksandr Lukashenko was reelected 

a third time and was inaugurated for his fourth 

term in office on 21 January 2011. 11 

- The EU was displeased with the treatment of the opposition 

in Belarus and overall restriction of civic rights, 

which prompted the European Parliament to adopt a 

resolution condemning Lukashenko. 12 The resolution forbade 

Lukashenko’s entry into the EU, imposed economic 

sanctions on Belarus in the form of an embargo on business 

with large Belarusian companies and froze assets of 

Belarusian state structures and some government officials. 

13 The resolution also expressed regret that Russia 

accepted the results of Belarusian presidential elections. 14 

- The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs criticized the 

resolution stating that its aim was “to undermine socioeconomic 

stability in the country.” 15 Russia announced 

that in response it would have to take “proportionate and 

adequate measures” in order to strengthen Belarusian 

sovereignty. 16 Deputy chair for international affairs in the 

Russian Duma (Parliament), Leonid Slutskiy, said that international 

sanctions such as these are “destructive.” 17 

- Some people in the Russian media went further by stating 

that at a time when the EU is weak and wracked by a crisis, 

the case of Belarus was taken up as a cause to show 

that the EU stands by its principles. 18 The report asserted 

that in reality, such righteousness is exercised only with 

respect to small states with little influence, which exposes 

the hypocrisy of the EU. In essence, Belarus was simply a 

field where Russia and the EU contested each other’s 

geopolitical influence. 19 

159

Arab Spring 

The operation in Libya was called “a full-blown colonial 

war.” 20 Russia was against Libyan intervention and called it 

“unreasonable.” 21 

- Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said in an interview 

that Russia was against the Western line taken in 

Libya, namely, forcing a ruler out of power and killing 

him. 22 He went on to say that such an approach would 

only provoke other people discontented with their government 

to rise up in arms and expect the West to fight 

alongside them. 23 Lavrov also stated that Russia was 

against such provocative destabilisation and preferred an 

open-minded dialogue. 

- At the same time, Moscow was convinced that the EU 

played little part in the unfolding of the operation, and 

thus, at the end of the day, paid little attention to European 

actions, placing all emphasis on the US instead. 

Human rights violations and the rule of law in Russia 

Two cases are significant in this section: the Magnitsky 

case 24 and the December 2011 Duma elections. 25 

- Sergey Magnitsky was a lawyer imprisoned for investigating 

a case of high-level corruption, who died in prison because 

he was denied medical treatment. 26 The European 

Parliament stressed the need to investigate the case of his 

death. 27 In February 2011 the EU approved a resolution 

criticizing the state of the Russian judiciary, which was 

deemed “not independent enough.” 28 EU debated following 

the US example and prohibiting entry into the EU to 

some of the officials implicated in the Magnitsky case, but 

that never materialised. In Russia the view was that such 

sanctions were a political tool meant to exert influence, 

and that the EU would never actually implement them. 29 

The unsatisfactory state of the Russian judiciary was also 

underscored by the negative European evaluation of the 

Khodorkovsky case. 30 

- The Duma elections were criticized as unfair in a resolution 

passed by the European Parliament on 7 July 2011. 31 

160

A Belgian deputy of the European Parliament, Guy Verhofstadt, 

called on the EU “not to repeat mistakes of the 

past and support the people, not governments that break 

the law and abuse human rights” 32 – clearly a hint at the 

European dealings with certain Arab states. In response 

to the condemnation of these elections, President Medvedev 

stated that he did not care what was said in Europe: 

“I have nothing to comment, because these are our elections. 

The European Parliament has nothing to do with 

them. […] I will not comment on their decisions, they do 

not mean anything to me.” 33 

Economic relations 

Three issues dominated the debates on the economic front: 

EU-Russia trade relations and Russia’s entry into the WTO, 

EU-Russia visa regime, and energy policy. 

- Entry into the WTO was very important to Russia. After 

eighteen years of negotiations, Moscow finally signed the 

protocol of entry into the WTO on 16 December 2011. 34 

Among the many new obligations the membership imposed 

on Russia was also the commitment to suspend 

payment from European airplanes crossing Russian airspace. 

The EU had earlier threatened Russian entry into 

the WTO, because Russia had banned imports of vegetables 

from Europe after an epidemic of E-coli broke out; 

Russia had to restart vegetable trade in order to be able 

to proceed with its WTO bid. 35 

- The visa question has plagued Russian-EU relations for 

quite some time, with one Duma deputy describing the 

EU policy in question as “a step forward, two steps 

back”. 36 The year culminated in the two parties signing an 

agreement that outlined four-steps Russia needed to take 

in order to start a visa-free regime with the EU. 37 Specifically, 

it called on Russia to introduce biometric passports 

and impose strict control of identity papers; to implement 

common standards in fighting illegal immigration; to cooperate 

with the EU in fighting terrorism; and to provide 

equality and protection against discrimination for all citizens 

crossing the common borders. 38 

161

- Finally, the question of energy has remained a difficult 

one. Russia places a huge emphasis on energy trade, as 

that is a significant source of its income. In January Russia 

announced that it planned to buy even more gas, than it 

already did, from Azerbaijan in order to ensure the success 

of the South Stream project and to prevent Europe 

from accessing alternative sources of energy. 39 In response, 

the EU denied South Stream a special status that 

would exempt third parties from using the pipeline – a 

status that Nabucco, for example, was granted. 40 Meanwhile, 

Russia criticized the EU’s decision to conduct 

three-way negotiations with Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan 

regarding the Trans-Caspian pipeline project. 41 Moscow 

asserted that this decision was made without taking 

into account the existing geopolitical and legal situation 

in the Caspian basin. At the same time, both sides realize 

that energy is a sphere in which they will have to find a 

way to cooperate, and thus are in the process of discussing 

a roadmap on gas relations lasting until 2050. 42 


The Russian opinion of the EU is divided among the 

Russian government and conservative layers of society, 

and liberal citizens and intellectuals. The latter’s view is 

much less sceptical and more positive. In addition, the two 

factions base their judgement on different issues: those 

who oppose the EU see it as politically weak, yet attempting 

to impose its hypocritical views and practices on the 

world; meanwhile, those who support the EU, stress its 

promotion of human rights and civil liberties, especially 

when compared with Russia. 

The EU has little credibility in the eyes of many, because 

it is seen as a weak coalition that has no military 

might and cannot reach a political consensus. This is why 

Russia prefers to deal with EU countries on a bilateral basis; 

it sees it as more convenient and according to its habits. 

The Russian government does not fully understand the 

workings of the EU bureaucracy, and it is convinced that 

the EU does not understand the workings of the Russian 

162

society. Russia’s government subscribes to the realist doctrine 

of world affairs, whereby military power and strategic 

national interests play the decisive role. That is why energy 

and membership in the WTO are so important to Russia – a 

strong state needs a strong economy. 

People who emphasize human rights and civil liberties 

point out that their government is afraid of the European 

liberalism. They believe that the European example 

and pressure make the state, which detests any attempt to 

interfere with its internal affairs, apprehensive. This is because 

“free-thinking people are enemies of arrogant 

thieves.” 43 

Russia and the EU held a summit meeting in December 

2011, which prompted the Russian Institute of 

Modern development to produce a 30-page report on the 

state of relations between the two parties. 44 While the report 

criticized Brussels’ technocracy and the propensity of 

the EU to get into matters outside of its competence – “[b]ig 

questions related to politics should be left up to appropriate 

negotiation forums” – it also recommended that the 

Russian government should remember the importance that 

the EU accord to human rights. 45 Experts asked the government 

not to ignore the EU’s calls for the development of 

democracy. 

In summary, from the Russian perspective, the EU 

is not unified: those who hold power are sceptical of it, except 

when it comes to economic questions. On the other 

hand, intellectuals and educated citizens look to it for promotion 

and protection of human rights and civil liberties. 

163

1 Speech by Peter Mandelson, “The EU and Russia: our joint political 

challenge”. Bologna, 20 April 2007. Date of access: 07/01/2012. 

2 More on this can be found in the following sources: Trygve Kalland , 

“The EU-Russia Relationship: What Is Missing?”, SIPRI (Stockholm International 

Peace Research Institute) policy brief, April 2004; Thomas 

Gomart, “EU-Russia Relations: Toward a Way out of Depression”, Centre 

for Strategic and International Studies, July 2008; Jakub Kulhanek, 

“The Fundamentals of Russia’s EU Policy”, Problems of Post- 

Communism, 57(5), September-October 2010, pp.51-63; Sergey Tumanov 

et al., “Russia-EU Relations, or How the Russians Really View 

the EU”, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 27(1), 

February 2011, pp.120-141. 

3 Gomart, Thomas. “EU-Russia Relations: Toward a Way out of Depression”, 

Centre for Strategic and International Studies. July 2008. Date of 

access: 29/01/2012. 

4 “Russia and Europe: Cooperation or Opposition?” Russia Public Opinion 

Research Centre, Press Issue #1550, 02 August 2010. Date of 

access: 01/02/2012. 

5 Meier Andrew and Michael C. Moyhinan.“Is the Soviet Union Back?” The 

Los Angeles Times. 29 August 2008. Date of access: 07/01/2012. 

6 Venediktov Aleksey. “Without Middlemen.” Ekho Moskvy. 25 May 2007. 


7 “Radio-station’s Ratings.” Ekho Moskvy. Date of access: 07/01/2012. 

8 Rambler Top100 Statistics. 2012. Date of access: 07/01/2012. 

9 “Radio-station’s Ratings.” Ekho Moskvy. Date of access: 07/01/2012. 

10 “Newspaper ‘Izvestia’.” Atlas of the Russian Press . 20 December 2011. 


11 Tishenko, Mikhail. “What Did He Fight For?” Lenta.ru. 22 January 

2011. Date of access : 01/02/2012. 

12 Fokina, Kseniya. “Brussels Will Punish Lukashenko.” Izvestia. 20 January 


13 Fokina, Kseniya. “Brussels Will Punish Lukashenko.” Izvestia. 20 January 


14 Buntman, Evgeni and Alina Grebneva. “International Sanctions Against 

Belarus.” Ekho Moskvy. 20 January 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

15 “Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Criticized EU and US Sanctions 

Against Minsk.” Lenta.ru. 01 February 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

16 “Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Criticized EU and US Sanctions 

Against Minsk.” Lenta.ru. 01 February 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

17 Buntman, Evgeni and Alina Grebneva. “International Sanctions Against 

Belarus.” Ekho Moskvy. 20 January 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

18 Gevorkian, Evelina. “Special Opinion.” Ekho Moskvy. 20 January 2011. 


164

19 Bychkova, Olga and Vladimir Gerasimov. “Aleksandr Lukashenko and 

Sanctions Against Belarus.” Ekho Moskvy. 21 January 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

20 Buntman, Sergey. “Special Opinion.” Ekho Moskvy. 01 July 2011. Date 


21 Benyumov, Konstantin. “Outside Threat: Plans of a Military Invasion of 

Libya Look More and More Real.” Lenta.ru. 2 March 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

22 Interview with Sergey Lavrov. Ekho Moskvy. 21 October 2011. Date of 

access: 01/02/2012. 

23 Interview with Sergey Lavrov. Ekho Moskvy. 21 October 2011. Date of 

access: 01/02/2012. 

24 “Uncomfortable Questions or the Magnitsky case in the Government 

Documents of The Netherlands”. Ekho Moskvy. 28 December 2011. 


25 “The European Union Is Going to Track in Detail the Russian Presidential 

Elections.” Izvestia. 11 April 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

26 Kuznetsov, Andrey. “Added to the Case: Head of the Investigation 

Committee of the Russian Federation Was Added to the “Blacklist” of 

Magnitsky.” Lentra.ru. 20 April 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

27 “Officials from the “Magnitsky List” Are Not Yet Threatened by European 

Sanctions.” Izvestia. 27 July 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

28 Shevtsov, Oleg. “February Resolution.” Izvestia. 18 February 2011. 


29 Boltyanskaya, Natella. “The People Are Against: International Sanctions 

Against Russia and Russian Officials Are Inadmissible.” Ekho 

Moskvy. 12 January 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

30 Sukholutskiy, Arkadiy. ”We Can’t Pretend That Nothing Is Happening.” 

Ekho Moskvy. 12 January 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

31 “Medvedev Ignored the Resolution of the European Parliament About 

Elections In Russia.” Lenta.ru. 15 December 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

32 “The European Parliament Is Calling The EU Leadership To Take A 

Strong Position At The Upcoming EU-Russia Summit On The Question 

Of Elections To The Duma.” Ekho Moskvy. 12 December 2011. Date of 

access: 01/02/2012. 

33 “Medvedev Ignored the Resolution of the European Parliament About 

Elections In Russia.” Lenta.ru. 15 December 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

34 “Russia Signed The Protocol Of Entry Into The WTO.” Lenta.ru. 16 December 


35 “European Commission is Warning That The Ban on The Import Of 

Vegetables Into Russia Is Complicating Its Accession to The WTO.” 

Ekho Moskvy. 22 June 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

36 Slutskiy, Leonid. “A Step Forward, Two Steps Back.” Ekho Moskvy. 29 


165

37 “Russia And The EU Have Agreed Upon A Step-by-step Plan On The 

Abolition Of Visas.” Lenta.ru. 13 December 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

38 “Russia And The EU Have Agreed Upon A Step-by-step Plan On The 

Abolition Of Visas.” Lenta.ru. 13 December 2011. Date of access: 

01/02/2012. 

39 Ponomareva, Aleksandra. ”South Stream is Being Pumped With Gas.” 

Izvestia. 25 January 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

40 “The European Union Denied South Stream A Special Status.” Lenta.ru. 


41 “Russia Criticized The Decision By The Council Of the European Union 

About A Transcaspian Pipeline.” Izvestia. 13 September 2011. Date of 

access: 01/02/2012. 

42 “Russia And The EU Are preparing A Roadmap Regarding gas Until 

2050.” Izvestia. 21 February 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

43 Press-conference with Vitaly Portnikov, a political observer. Lenta.ru. 


44 Sidibe, Pierre. “Institute For modern development has Prepared For 

Medvedev A New Report On Relation With The EU.” Izvestia. 07 December 


45 Sidibe, Pierre. “Institute For modern development has Prepared For 

Medvedev A New Report On Relation With The EU.” Izvestia. 07 December 


166

167 

SERBIA 

By Petar Dodic 

Ethnic composition: Serb 82.9%, Hungarian 

3.9%, Romany 1.4%, Yugoslavs 

1.1%, Bosniaks 1.8%, Montenegrin 

0.9%, other 8% (2002 census) 


GDP per capita: $10,700 (2011 est.)

BACKGROUND: 

Over the past decade, Serbia’s future has become 

increasingly locked into a path towards the EU. The relationship 

has drastically changed since the fall of the Milosevic 

regime in 2001. 1 In 2003, at the Thessaloniki Summit, 

the EU made it clear that Serbia and the region’s future belongs 

within the EU. 2 However, achieving candidate status 

has proved to be more complicated than anticipated by the 

Serbian government. Progress has been slow for much of 

the past decade, but it has gained pace in recent years as 

meeting EU criteria has become more effective. 3 Serbia 

surpassed some substantial obstacles when it signed the 

Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) in 2008, has 

fulfilled all of its obligations to the ICTY by late 2011, and 

has enacted some major reforms. 4 At the same time, there 

have been disappointments for both sides. 

Despite being recommended for candidate status 

by the European Council on October 12, 2011, Serbia did 

not achieve this by the end of the year as it had hoped. 5 Kosovo 

remains a major issue and in December the European 

Commission insisted that relations between the two must 

be normalized before Serbia could receive candidate status. 

6 


Politika 

www.politika.rs 

This is the premier daily newspaper in the country, being 

the oldest in the Balkans. 7 As such, it is considered to be the 

newspaper of record and a leading authority in journalism. 

It has a daily circulation of 135,000. 8 

RTS (Radio Television of Serbia) 

www.rts.rs 

The national public broadcaster of Serbia whose daily news 

program is the most watched in the country. 9 Since the end 

168

of the Milosevic regime, RTS has undergone reforms and 

restructuring so that currently, according to its website, it 

is committed to promoting democratic values free of political 

bias. 10 11 

B92 

www.b92.net 

A national radio and television broadcaster that began as a 

youth radio station in 1989 and has since expanded to become 

one of the main news services and television broadcasters 

in the country. 12 Its primary audience is largely urban, 

young and it is associated with liberal political views. 13 

Its online news service receives on average 200,000 visitors 

daily. 14 

Blic 

www.blic.rs 

Blic is one of the most popular tabloid newspapers in Serbia 

with a circulation of 120,000. 15 It was founded in 1996 

by a group of Austrian businessmen and is currently owned 

by the company Ringier, which also owns tabloids around 

the world. 16 Its name means “flash” in Serbian and although 

it has slightly more in-depth coverage than the other tabloids, 

its format remains focused on quick, attentiongrabbing 

news. 

FINDINGS: 

2011 was a very eventful year when it came to issues concerning 

the EU’s relationship with Serbia and has thus provided 

many news stories covered in the country’s domestic 

media. The key issues were those surrounding Serbia’s 

prospects for receiving candidate status, Kosovo, and EU’s 

financial crisis. 

Candidate Status 

The major topic regarding the relationship between the EU 

and Serbia has been that of Serbia’s hopes for candidate 

169

status and the issues surrounding this. The year began with 

reports in the media of the possibility of Serbia achieving 

this goal. 

o According to a poll conducted by Politika at the beginning 

of 2011, the year commenced with high hopes, 

with the majority of the respondents answering that 

they expected Serbia to gain candidate status in 2011 

as well as that the war fugitive, Ratko Mladic, would be 

caught. 17 

o These hopes continued to increase throughout the 

year. Politicians on both sides expressed hope and optimism 

that Serbia would be able to achieve candidate 

status in 2011. Serbia’s president, Boris Tadic, set candidate 

status as a goal for 2011. 18 Interviews and 

statements by top Serbian and EU politicians reinforced 

these hopes, such as during the visit of EU 

Commission president Jose Manuel Barroso on 19 

May. 19 

- Perhaps the biggest event for Serbia and its EU prospects 

was the apprehension of war fugitive Ratko Mladic, followed 

by the last remaining alleged war criminal Goran 

Hadzic. These developments signaled the crossing of one 

of the biggest hurdles to candidate status. 

o On 26 May 2011, Ratko Mladic, war crime fugitive, was 

arrested. This was one of the biggest events of the year 

in terms of Serbia’s hopes for candidate status and it 

made international news, as Ratko Mladic was one of 

the most high-profile war crimes suspects of the Bosnian 

war. 20 

o Following the arrest of Mladic, Serbia’s last war crimes 

suspect, Goran Hadzic was arrested on 20 July, signaling 

the fulfillment of the country’s obligations to the 

Hague tribunal. 21 

o Newspapers report optimism among politicians, especially 

Serbian ones, that the country will receive candidate 

status by the end of the year. 22 

- Angela Merkel’s visit to Belgrade on 23 August 2011 sent 

mixed messages. Although the German Chancellor issued 

statements in support of Serbia’s European integration ef- 

170

forts, she also criticized the government for its support of 

parallel institutions in northern Kosovo. 23 This raised the 

question of whether Serbia would have to recognize Kosovo 

in order to achieve candidate status. 24 

- On 12 October, the European Commission recommended 

that Serbia should receive candidate status based on the 

country's progress with reforms, its cooperation with the 

Hague tribunal, and its regional reconciliation efforts. It 

was also stated that Serbia should receive candidate status 

provided that Belgrade-Pristina dialogue resumes. 25 

- However, at the summit of the European Council on 9 December, 

it was decided to delay granting candidate status 

to Serbia. 26 This was largely due to the dissatisfaction of 

the EU over the progress of Serbia-Kosovo dialogue and 

the clashes between Serbs and EU Rule of Law Mission in 

Kosovo (EULEX) soldiers in northern Kosovo over the 

removal of the road blockades set up by the residents. 27 

Kosovo 

The fear that Serbia might have had to choose between the 

EU and Kosovo has been one of the most common threads 

throughout the year with various reports as to whether 

such a question would even arise. 

o One of the first reports in the year suggested that Serbia 

would not have to choose between the two and 

that the question will not even rise. 28 

o Throughout the year however, various news sources 

reported various statements and conclusions over the 

issue. One report covered statements by Angela Merkel’s 

party that Serbia will eventually have to recognize 

Kosovo if it hopes to become a member of the 

EU. 29 

- The establishment of road blockades by Serbs in northern 

Kosovo as well as the clashes between Serb residents and 

EULEX forces was another topic heavily covered in the 

media. The incidents brought up questions over the role 

of the EU in the situation. 

o On 26-27 July clashes erupted at the customs posts at 

Jarinje and Brnjak between Serbs and Kosovo police 

171

forces after an attempt to staff the customs posts with 

Kosovan police. 30 

o In September, tension rose again after Serbs set up 

barricades on major roads in northern Kosovo. 31 

o The barricades remained despite calls from Serbia’s 

president, Boris Tadic, to remove them. There were 

several attempts in October at removing the barricades 

by force by EULEX troops. 32 

o By the end of the year, some barricades remained, 

some were torn down, and new ones were still put 

up. 33 By the end of 2011, this situation had not been 

resolved and the tension in Kosovo contributed to 

Serbia’s failure to receive candidate status in December 

as it had hoped. 


One of the major topics covered in the media throughout 

2011 has been the financial crisis in the EU. The events 

covered have generally been the same major events covered 

in the international media. However, some reports 

have also covered some specific aspects of the crisis, such 

as one article discussing how, while most European countries 

have experienced a decline, the German economy has 

grown and even profited as the article suggests, from a 

weak euro. 34 

- Within the media, the Eurozone crisis has triggered various 

reports of what the crisis could mean for Serbia’s EU 

future. The crisis has sparked the question of whether the 

EU will even want to enlarge given its difficult situation. 35 

36 

- Another aspect of the Eurozone crisis covered in the media 

was its effect on Serbia’s economy. Many news stories 

pointed out that Serbia was by no means unaffected by 

the crisis since its economy is so integrated into the European 

one. 37 

172


The major topic discussed in Serbia's media 

throughout 2011 has been that of candidate status and the 

various issues surrounding it. This is not surprising given 

that most of the major events throughout the year, such as 

the arrest of Ratko Mladic, have been related to the country's 

prospects for joining the EU. The large number of articles 

written on this subject is indicative of the public’s 

interest and hopes of receiving candidate status; if the 

population had been indifferent to the issue, it would not 

have been such a prominent topic. Several interesting 

trends emerged within this category of news stories as 

well. One such trend was that throughout the year, many 

reports were written predicting whether or not Serbia 

would receive candidate status by the end of the year. 

There were many articles suggesting both outcomes, however, 

in general, most foresaw a positive change in Serbia’s 

prospects. Such reports would often highlight the many 

promises and statements of EU officials that supported 

their arguments, while simply mentioning that most of the 

promises made by EU officials were conditional on the 

progress of bilateral relations of Serbia and Kosovo. This 

suggested a generally hopeful attitude in the media over 

the country's prospects of achieving its goal. About halfway 

through the year however, following Angela Merkel’s visit 

to Belgrade, the excitement over the issue had dissipated as 

the German Chancellor made it clear that Serbia would 

have to give up its parallel institutions in Northern Kosovo 

in order to receive candidate status. Thus the general atmosphere 

of hopefulness gradually diminished as it became 

increasingly clear that receiving candidate status 

would be more difficult that originally anticipated. 

Kosovo was another major theme in the media 

throughout the year. This issue closely ties into that of Serbia’s 

future within the EU, since developments in Kosovo 

would inevitably affect the outcome of Serbia's bid for candidacy. 

As such, there appears to have been a great deal of 

anxiety over the issue of Kosovo and the developments in 

that region. One trend, which demonstrates this anxiety, is 

173

that many articles discussed whether recognizing Kosovo 

would be a condition for receiving candidate status or for 

joining the EU. The large amount of articles written on this 

debate point to the fears of the public that they may have to 

eventually choose between one or the other and that the 

current policy of pursuing both may not be viable in the 

long run. 

Apart from the domestic issues, the major international 

topic relevant to Serbia's relationship with the EU 

that has received coverage has been the Eurozone crisis. As 

with the media of many countries, the reports covering this 

topic have been generally negative. This has led to some 

articles analyzing the implications of the crisis for Serbia's 

economy, but also, the implications it may have on EU enlargement. 

One interesting trend is that many articles have 

dealt specifically with the role of Germany in the Eurozone 

crisis and its attempts to solve it. This trend is not just isolated 

to the issue of the crisis but is also noticeable in the 

other two categories. For example, when Serbia did not receive 

candidate status on 9 December, many articles 

pointed to the fact that the main countries that opposed the 

action were Germany and Austria. This trend reveals the 

recognition in the media that Germany is largely responsible 

for Serbia's future within the EU. As such, there have 

been hints of slight suspicion in the media towards Germany, 

such as an article discussing how the German economy 

has continued to grow despite the crisis, even suggesting 

that they have profited from a weak euro. 38 It must be mentioned 

however, that evidence of such suspicion is minimal. 

174

1 “Commission Opinion on Serbia's application for membership of the 

European Union.” Europa.eu. 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

2 "Enlargement." Consilium: Council of the European Union. Date of 

access: 23/01/2012. 

3 Teokarevic, Jovan. “Ten years of post-Milosevic transition in Serbia: 

problems and prospects.” The Western Balkans and the EU: ‘The Hour 

of Europe.’ Edited by Jacques Rupnik, pp. 59-78. Paris: EU Institute for 

Security Studies, 2011. 70 

4 ibid. 70. 

5 “European Council.” Conclusions 9 December 2011. pp. 5. 2011. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

6 ibid. 5. 

7 "O Kompaniji." Politika Akcionarsko Drustvo. Date of access: 

23/02/2012. 

8 "Source Profile: Politika." Presseurop. Date of access: 23/02/2012. 

9 "RTS i dalje obara rekorde gledanosti." RTS. 08 January 2009. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

10 "Transforming national broadcasting in Serbia." BBC World Service 

Trust. 04 October 2007. Date of access: 27/01/2012. 

11 "Upoznajte RTS." RTS. 12 June 2009. Date of access: 27/01/2012. 

12 "Informacije o B92." B92. Date of access: 27/01/2012. 

13 ibid. 

13 ibid. 

14 "Source Profile: Blic." Presseurop. Date of access: 23/01/2012. 

15 ibid. 

16 ibid. 

17 "Vecina gradjana ocekuje da cemo u 2011. dobiti status kandidata." 

Politika. 03 January 2011. 27/01/2012. 

18 Tomic, L. "Tadic: Prvo kandidatura pa izbori." Blic. 02 April 2011. Date 


19 "Barozo: Kljuc za EU u rukama Srbije." B92. 19 May 2011. Date of 

access: 27/01/2012. 

20 "Uhapsen Ratko Mladic." RTS. 26 May 2011. Date of access: 

28/01/2012. 

21 Teleskovic, Dusan. "Uhapsen Goran Hadzic." Politika. 21 July 2011. 


22 "Jeremic: Nadamo se statusu kandidata do kraja godine." Blic. 25 July 


23 "Tadić: Srbija neće napustiti svoj narod na KiM i neće odustati od 

evrointegracija." Politika. 25 August 2011. Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

24 "Merkelova - Dobre i lose vesti." B92. 24 August 2011. Date of access: 

28/01/2012. 

25 "EK odobrila Srbiji status kandidata." B92. 12 October 2011. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

26 Spaic, Tamara. "EU: Odluka o kandidaturi Srbije u februaru." Blic. 09 


175

27 "Merkel: Srbija ne ispunjava uslove." B92. 02 December 2011. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

28 Clajak, B. "Nerealno je pitanje Kosovo ili EU." Politika. 08 January 


29 "Nema EU bez priznanja Kosova." B92. 22 June 2011. Date of access: 

28/01/2012. 

30 "Eston trazi od Tadica i Tacija da smire situaciju." Politika. 27 July 


31 "Blokada Kosova, ispaljeni prvi meci." B92. 17 September 2011. Date 


32 "Kfor uklanja barikade." B92. 20 October 2011. Date of access: 

28/01/2012. 

33 "Brnjak i Jarinje ponovo blokirani." Blic. 08 December 2011. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

34"Evropska nocna mora, nemacka bajka." RTS. 12 January 2012. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

35 "Uprkos krizi, EU najbolja za Srbiju." B92. 03 October 2011. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

36 "Jeremic: Ekonomska Kriza ce uticati i na sirenje EU." Blic. 20 June 


37 Rabrenovic, J. "Svetska kriza opet kuca na vrata." Politika. 09 August 


38 Evropska nocna mora, nemacka bajka." RTS. 12 January 2012. Date of 

access: 28/01/2012. 

176

177 

SPAIN 

By Ariadna Pauliuc 

Ethnic composition: composite of Mediterranean 

and Nordic types 





BACKGROUND: 

After its 1986 entry into the EU, Spain helped establish 

Mediterranean and South American dimensions 

within the organization. 1 As a strong supporter of the EU’s 

Union for the Mediterranean (UfM), Spain has sought to 

strengthen its ties with, and promote a European- 

Mediterranean dialogue. In addition, Spain has been successful 

in increasing relations with Mediterranean, Arab, 

and African nations. As the UfM headquarters are in Barcelona, 

Spain’s involvement and the success of the initiative 

are pivotal to the nation. More regionally, Spain’s accession 

to the EU helped resolve trade frictions between itself and 

its neighbouring countries. 2 


El País 

www.elpais.com 

El Pais is Spain's top-selling newspaper with a daily circulation 

of 440,000. Its online edition is the second most visited 

in the country, and is internationally recognized among the 

world's twenty best newspapers. The publication was 

founded in 1976 and remains closely connected to the 

Spanish Socialist Party, PSOE. 3 

The Barcelona Reporter 

www.barcelonareporter.com 

Founded in 2005, the Barcelona Reporter is a Spanish 

online paper providing daily news in English. 4 

Libertad Digital 

www.libertaddigital.com 

Libertad Digital is an online paper with 6,458,000 visits per 

month, as reported in 2008. Its political orientation ranges 

between conservative, liberal, and centrist. 5 

178

FINDINGS: 

The following major topics were widely discussed in the 

domestic media over the course of 2011. 


The domestic economic downturn as well as the Eurozone 

crisis dominated the national Spanish press. 

- In January 2011, ABC de Seville and the Barcelona Reporter 

reported that despite the rising debt and the subsequent 

debt crisis, China is still willing to absorb a debt 

of €5.65 billion while the EU is expecting Spain to request 

a bailout, despite protestations from Prime Minister Jose 

Luis Rodriguez Zapatero 6 

- In the same month, El Pais reported that if the EU were to 

absorb the Spanish debt it would be the largest of the 

European bailouts, as the Spanish economy is twice the 

size of Ireland, Greece, and Portugal combined. 7 

- On 1 March 2011, the Barcelona Reporter noted that despite 

the Spanish government’s optimism for an economic 

recovery, the fact that Spain is affected by both the international 

financial crisis and its own sovereign debt crisis, 

limited the prospects of an economic upturn. Prime Minister 

Zapatero promised to lower unemployment from 20 

percent (the highest of any EU member) as well as to reduce 

the deficit. 8 

- Later in March, European leaders set a date to analyze a 

package that would help resolve Spain’s sovereign debt 

crisis after Moody downgraded Spain’s credit rating, as 

reported in the press. Prime Minister Zapatero insisted 

that it would only cost 20 billion euro to refinance the 

banking sector while Moody estimated the effort would 

require between 40 to 50 billion euro. The package proposed 

by the EU would help consolidate the debt and take 

pressure of the public sector. 9 

- Media reports from 21 June 2011 indicated that the Spanish 

Government confirmed that while EU ministers were 

meeting to discuss further emergency funds for debt re- 

179

lief, Spain would not be requesting a debt bailout from 

the EU. 10 

- On 6 September 2011, Libertad Digital published an 

analysis of the political and economic costs of reshaping 

the EU along with considerations of a changing euro and a 

plausible fiscal confederation. While Spanish officials acknowledged 

that a restructuring or withdrawal would be 

economically beneficial for Spain, the Lisbon Treaty 

makes that extremely difficult. 11 

- On 20 November 2011, the press reported that despite 

economic hardship the Spanish government announced a 

wage increase as well as pension boosts scheduled for 

November 2012. The EU reported that Spain is able to 

borrow money from international money markets although 

at higher interest rates 12 

Migration 

- It was reported on 18 June 2011, that while the Spanish 

government was hoping the EU would help close its labor 

market to Romanian workers in order to lower Spanish 

unemployment, the opening of a new Mercedes plant in 

Hungary actually helped absorb the influx of Romanian 

workers into Spain. 13 Spain’s request to close its boarders 

came after several months of experiencing the highest 

unemployment of any other EU member nation. In August 

El País reported that although the EC was hesitant to authorize 

the proposed labour restrictions at first, the extraordinary 

economic circumstances, chiefly the Spanish 

unemployment rate of 21%, have persuaded the Commission 

to consent to the proposed limitations. 14 

The Environment 

- The media reported in October 2011, that Spain must 

pledge to help restructure the fishing industry as it places 

the most strain on the industry and severely taxes the EU 

as a result. Restructuring should include fleet size reduction, 

fishing bans and the creation of marine reserves said 

a EU official. 15 

180


In 2011, the relationship between Spain and the EU 

was largely based on the economy. The international financial 

crisis and the sovereignty debt crisis in Spain were at 

the forefront of EU considerations. While the Spanish 

Prime Minister did not request a bailout, the EU was concerned 

it would have to help consolidate Spain’s debt 

which would have essentially crippled the EMU along with 

the EU. Despite being straddled with one of the largest 

debts in Europe as well as the highest unemployment rate 

of any other EU member, Spain was able to improve its 

economy by the end of the fiscal year. Largely due to EU 

deliberations and the Lisbon Treaty, Spain was forced to 

actively seek new ways of improving its economy as well as 

to suggest new ways to help improve the Euro and thus the 

economy of the union. The EU was not optimistic in Spain’s 

economic recovery, especially after its credit rating downgrade 

by Moody. The Spanish government remained optimistic 

in its belief of a recovering economy. Spain not only 

did not request a bail out from the EU, but it managed to 

increase the minimum wage and boost pensions by the end 

of 2011. Particularly, the main economic concern the EU 

had with regards to Spain was the sovereign debt crisis and 

the “downloading” of this debt on the private sector while 

trying to refinance the banking system. This consideration 

dominated in Lisbon Treaty deliberations and detracted 

from Spain’s usual zeal in pressuring the EU to get involved 

with the ongoing problems in Mediterranean and Arab 

countries. 

Another important topic relates to Spain’s high unemployment 

rates and its influence on the country’s attempt 

to close its labour market to workers from Romania. 

This was chiefly motivated by the government’s desire to 

protect its economy and decrease the unemployment rate. 

Also noteworthy is the fact that while having Europe’s 

largest fishing industry, the lack of any Spanish restructuring 

of this industry to ensure preservation, prompted the 

EU to offer potential solutions for the amelioration of the 

situation. Despite many other crucial issues, such as the 

181

environment and foreign relations with Mediterranean and 

Arab nations, in 2011, Spain mainly engaged with the EU 

on matters pertaining to the economy and the economic 

crisis. This relationship is telling of the economic conditions 

in Europe during 2011. 

182

1 Miguel Sebastian (2001): “Spain in the EU: fifteen years may not be 

enough,” Centre for European Studies, Harvard University, Working 

Paper Series #96. 

2 ibid. 

3 “Source Profile: El País.” Presseurop. 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

4 “About Barcelona Reporter.” The Barcelona Reporter. 2012. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

5 “Libertad digital media article.” eurotopics Press Review: The Network 

for Reporting on Eastern Europe. 2012. Date of access: 03/03/2012. 

6 “Spanish economy despite market distrust Chinese official promises to 

buy Spanish debt.” The Barcelona Reporter. January 2011. Date of 

access: 15/02/2012. 

7 “Spanish economy despite market distrust Chinese official promises to 

buy Spanish debt.” The Barcelona Reporter. January 2011. Date of 

access: 15/02/2012. 

8 “Spanish economy 2011 government points to economic upturn.” The 

Barcelona Reporter. 1 March 2011. Date of access: 10/02/2012. 

9 “Credit Rating Cut Spain One Level to Aa2 by Moody’s 2011.” The Barcelona 

Reporter. 11 March 2011. Date of access: 12/02/2012. 

10 “Spain won’t need bailout says economy minister.” El Pais. 21 June 


11 “Euro break-up: the consequences.” Libertad Digital. 6 September 


12 “Spain minimum wage rise 2011 and pensions boost.” The Barcelona 

Reporter. 20 November 2011. Date of access: 14/02/2012. 

13 “Romanians to return home to work in the new Mercedes plant.” The 

Barcelona Reporter. 18 June 2011. Date of access: 12/02/2012. 

14 Sáiz, Eva. “Brussels approves Spain’s request to re-instigate work 

permits to Romanians.” El País. 11 August 2011. Date of access: 

01/04/2012. 

15 “Spaniards must eat less fish to help preserve fish stocks worldwide.” 

The Barcelona Reporter. October 2011. Date of access: 14/02/2012. 

183

SWITZERLAND 

By Rabiya Asad 

Ethnic composition: German 65%, 

French 18%, Italian 10%, Romansch 

1%, other 6% 



184

BACKGROUND: 

Switzerland is geographically situated in the center 

of Europe, and trades primarily with its European neighbours; 

however it has not become a member of the EU. In a 

referendum in 2002, the Swiss public voted against opening 

talks on joining the EU, and currently Swiss-EU relations 

are based on a series of extensive bilateral agreements. 

In 2005, Swiss-EU relations became closer as a result 

of a referendum which revealed that the Swiss public 

was in favour of Switzerland signing onto the EU Schengen 

and Dublin agreements. These agreements brought Switzerland 

into Europe’s passport-free zone and allowed Switzerland 

to collaborate with other EU members on security 

related issues. 1 More recently, Switzerland brought its legislation 

in line with that of the EU in order to avoid discrimination 

as a non-EU member. 2 


Tages-Anzeiger 

www.tagesanzeiger.ch 

Tages-Anzeiger (TA) is a national daily newspaper based in 

Zurich. In comparison to other Swiss newspapers it has a 

wide readership and circulates to approximately 204 000 

readers daily. 3 Although it is politically and economically 

independent, the newspaper is generally considered to be 

politically left and government friendly. 4 

Neue Zürcher Zeitung 

www.nzz.ch 

The Neue Zürcher Zeitung (NZZ) is another national daily 

newspaper based in Zurich, with a daily circulation of 137 

000. 5 NZZ shares political opinions that are linked to the 

liberal Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. 6 

185

Swissinfo 

www.swissinfo.ch 

Swissinfo is a news and information platform that serves as 

the international branch of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation 

(SBC). Its role is to cover events in Switzerland and 

to offer a Swiss perspective on international events. The 

main readership consists of expatriate Swiss and an international 

audience with an interest in Switzerland. The 

swissinfo.ch website and mobile platforms are available in 

up to nine languages. Swissinfo.ch is based in Bern with offices 

in Geneva and Zurich. 7 

FINDINGS: 

The following major topics were covered extensively in 

Swiss national media over the course of 2011. 

Foreign Policy 

- As part of an initiative to slow Iran’s nuclear development 

program, the EU has issued a number of tough economic 

sanctions against Iran as of 23 January 2012. All EU countries 

are banned from importing oil from Iran, and existing 

contracts can last as long as 1 July 2012. Restrictions 

have also been placed on investments made by European 

companies in Iran’s petrochemical industry. The Iranian 

Central Bank has also been subject to sanctions, to make 

it harder for the country to finance its nuclear program. 8 

- Maria Avet, the spokesperson of the state secretariat for 

Economic Affairs in Switzerland commented that as a 

non-member, Switzerland has not yet decided whether or 

not it will support the sanctions. 9 

- However, Switzerland has recently tried to replicate EU 

sanctions in order to harmonize its laws with those of its 

European trading partners, although there was a delay in 

their implementation. If Switzerland stalls its decision to 

impose current EU sanctions this could reduce the efficacy 

of the sanctions themselves. 10 

186

Bilateral Relations among European Countries 

- In April 2009, Switzerland was placed by the Organization 

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on a 

grey list of countries for failing to provide bank details of 

foreign tax evaders and helping them hide their assets. 

The Swiss government decided to sign two ground breaking 

deals with Germany in August 2011 and Britain in October 

2011 to close the accounts of current tax evaders 

and to ensure that backdated taxes are paid on longstanding 

assets. These deals were known as the Rubik system. 

11 

- While the Rubik system has been praised by the OECD for 

its transparency, the EU is not fond of the bilateral relations 

between these two countries. 12 

- The EU Finance Committee has criticized the Rubik System 

as it claims that the contracts may not comply with 

EU directives. The EU instead wants to impose a uniform 

solution for tax evasion across Europe that is in line with 

EU rules and regulations. 13 

Free Movement of People 

- The Swiss People’s Party has launched a campaign to restrict 

the free movement of people between the EU and 

Switzerland (currently permitted by bilateral treaties between 

Switzerland and the EU). 14 

- Under Swiss law, which adheres to the principles of direct 

democracy, the initiative requires 100, 000 signatures before 

Swiss voters can be asked to express their views on 

the matter. As of now, the deadline for collecting the 100, 

000 signatures has been set for the end of 2012 or the beginning 

of 2013. 15 

- Though the Swiss private sector and most politicians have 

been strongly in favour of the free movement of people 

(along with much of the public which has voted three 

times in favour of the referendums) there has been a recent 

increase in those opposed to the passport free zone. 

The demographic growth has translated into a lack of 

187

available resources for Swiss nationals and has created 

problems particularly with regards to housing. 16 

- If the initiative does gain popularity, it could undermine 

the treaties signed between the EU and Switzerland 

harming Swiss-EU relations. 17 


Switzerland and EU relations have traditionally 

been complex. While the Swiss people want to maintain 

their independent identity, the fact that Switzerland is surrounded 

by so many EU member states has meant that the 

Swiss government has concluded a series of treaties with 

the EU to keep up with the progress achieved by the EU 

member states. It is unlikely, however, that Switzerland 

will join the EU anytime soon. The year 2011 was marked 

by tense relations between the two. Throughout the year, 

Switzerland displayed an interest in following EU policy 

under its own terms. This was shown when the Swiss government 

suggested that it would take its time to decide if it 

wanted to adopt sanctions against Iran. Clearly, the Swiss 

government was trying to prove its independence over its 

foreign policy and that it could act independently in order 

to resolve international crisis. This is rooted in the fact that 

the Swiss have historically tended to prioritize their national 

identity over their European one. This in turn has 

created tension between Switzerland and the EU, as Switzerland 

only seems willing to follow EU policy when it results 

in clear social and economic benefit for its people 

(such as the passport free cone or collaborated efforts to 

resolve security related issues). 

As Switzerland engaged in bilateral relations with 

Britain and Germany to prevent tax evasion, the EU felt 

that its power to create policies and enforce them upon its 

member states was being threatened and its authority being 

challenged. As a result, it issued a notification condemning 

the bilateral engagements and suggested instead 

that the EU take up the responsibility of creating a unified 

tax evasion system all across Europe. Like any global institution, 

the EU is sensitive to the fact that it only has as 

188

much power as countries associated with it, and that Switzerland 

does not fully recognize the EU’s authority in Europe. 

Therefore, it tried to re-assert its influence and make 

its position known on the issue. This bid for power displayed 

the deterioration of Swiss-EU relations more than 

anything else. 

The Swiss people’s attitude towards the EU suggests 

that Swiss-EU relations have been weak in 2011. Traditionally, 

the passport free zone has been appreciated for 

making it easier for people to move across the continent in 

search of employment. However in recent years this has 

come under attack as there are not enough resources available 

to sustain a growing immigrant population. The Swiss 

People’s Party has used this opportunity to promote its 

right wing anti-immigration agenda. While there is no 

guarantee that the movement will garner enough support 

to become a referendum, it does reveal the growing concern 

that the EU’s limited influence in Switzerland is already 

being challenged. This opens up multiple avenues for 

challenging inroads made by the EU. In 2011, room for 

compromise between the EU and Switzerland seemed to be 

shrinking. It seems unlikely that relations will improve and 

that Switzerland will join the EU any time soon. 

189

1 "Switzerland Country Profile." BBC News. 04 January 2012. Date of 

access: 6/01/2012. 

2 "Switzerland and the EU." Swissinfo. 17 November 2009. Date of access: 

6/01/2012. 

3 “Source Profile: Tages Anzeiger.” Presseurop. Date of access: 

06/03/2012. 

4 "Tages Anzeiger." Tamedia. Date of access: 06/01/2012. 

5 “Source Profile: Neue Zürcher Zeitung (NZZ).” Presseurop. Date of 

access: 06/03/2012. 

6 "NZZ." NZZ. 01 August 2008. Date of access: 06/01/2012. 

7 “About Us.” SwissInfo. Date of access: 29/01/2012. 

8 Berthoud, Jean-Michel. “Schweiz schon wieder im Visier der USA”. 

Swissinfo. 10 February 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

9 Berthoud, Jean-Michel. “Swiss come into insights again over Iran”. 

Swissinfo. 18 February 2012. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

10 “Harte Sanktionen Gegen Iran” NZZ. 23 January 2012. Date of access: 

29/01/2012. 

11 “Steuerabkommen unter Beschuss”. NZZ. 06 November 2011. Date of 

access: 01/04/2012. 

12 “OECD lobt Schweizer Steuerdeals”. Tages Anzeiger. 31 October 2011. 


13 “Die EU hat Mühe, ihre Schäfchen im Zaum zu halten” Tages Anzeiger. 


14 “SVP-Initiative gegen Freizügigkeit eingereicht”. NZZ. 15 February 


15 ibid. 

16 Schaffner, David. “Wirtschaft zittert um freien Personenverkehr”. 

Tages Anzeiger. 08 July 2011. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

17“Spannung in die Beziehungen zwischen die Schweiz und die EU.” 

SwissInfo. 06 January 2012. Date of access: 29/01/2012. 

190

191 

TURKEY 

By Isa Topbas 

Ethnic composition: Turkish 70-75%, 

Kurdish 18%, other minorities 7-12% 

(2008 est.) 


GDP per capita: $14,600 (2011 est.)

BACKGROUND: 

Turkey’s relationship with the EU (formerly the 

EEC) dates back some time. Turkey secured a customs union 

deal with the EU in 1995, after applying for associate 

membership to the EEC in 1959. This was followed by the 

signings of the "Ankara Association Protocol" in 1963 and 

the "Additional Protocol" in 1970. 1 A recurrent element in 

EU-Turkish relations, thus far, is the slow pace of the negotiations 

between the two sides. 

In 1997, Turkey was declared eligible for EU Membership, 

and was officially made a candidate two years later 

on “equal footing” with the other candidate countries. 2 

Since then however, there has not been much progress in 

terms of Turkish accession. It took six years to officially 

open negotiations for accession and the Accession Partnership 

guiding the process has been revised twice since. 3 

Many chapters have been opened and only one has been 

closed, meaning that any hope among Turks for accession 

to the EU is diminishing rapidly. 


Zaman 

www.zaman.com.tr 

Zaman is the paper with the highest readership and circulation 

rates in the country; its daily circulation is approximately 

1 million. 4 The paper is known for its conservative 

views and is sometimes linked with the Gülen movement. 

Launched in 1986, the publication belongs to a large media 

group, consisting of a media agency, a TV channel, a daily in 

English, a radio station, and others. 5 

Hürriyet 

www.hurriyet.com.tr 

Hürriyet is a popular daily with 360,000 copies circulated 

daily. Its reporting is often provocative, but generally sympathetic 

to national pride particularly targeting working 

192

class readers. 6 The newspaper launched in 1948 is currently 

owned by the large industrial group, Doğan. The company 

also owns several other daily publications in the country. 

7 

Sabah 

www.sabah.com.tr 

Sabah is one of Turley’s most popular daily tabloids with 

close to 400,000 copies circulated daily. 8 It is a moderate, 

centre-right newspaper that was recently acquired by Çalık 

Holding, 9 whose CEO, Berat Albayrak, is the son-in-law of 

Prime Minister Erdoğan. The company publishes over 50 

other publications such as regional and national daily 

newspapers, weekly papers and magazines. 10 

FINDINGS: 

The articles found in the aforementioned news sources 

throughout 2011, revealed the following trends: 

Loss of Interest in Accession 

- There is the notion among the Turkish people, which is 

represented by the domestic media, that the EU is sort of 

a “Christian Club” 11 in which the major players France 

and Germany will not tolerate the accession of a largely 

Muslim country that would also significantly alter the 

balance of power. 12 

- There is a consensus that the government in power has 

fulfilled its requirements to bring Turkish standards up to 

the level necessary for acceptance into the EU. The EU’s 

complex system of bureaucracy is mostly blamed for the 

lengthy process. 13 

- The media consistently reflects the Turkish public’s declining 

enthusiasm for accession to the EU. In a survey 

conducted by the German Marshall Fund, only 38% of 

Turks say that EU membership would be a good thing, 

compared to 73% in 2004. 14 

193

The unfair use of Cyprus as a bargaining chip 

- Turkish people are annoyed by the fact that the issue of 

Turkish Cyprus is constantly brought up by the EU. 15 This 

issue even caused a stir between Prime Minister Erdoğan 

and then Greek Prime Minister Papandreou at the Ambassadors 

Conference held in Erzurum, during which Papandreou 

stated: “unless Turkey ends its invasion of Cyprus, 

it can never become a member of the EU.” 16 

EU Accession as a dividing force within Turkish society 

- Due to the fact that no actual progress has been made in 

Turkey’s bid for accession, the government feels compelled 

to continually restate that they have not given up. 17 

This is particularly important, as the opposition blames 

the government for the lack of success in the accession 

process. The topic of EU membership mostly ends in 

heated debates and arguments between members of parliament, 

just like the one that broke out between Egemen 

Bağış, the Minister for EU Relations, and members of the 

opposition parties during the 13 December session of 

Parliament. 18 


2011 was an uneventful year in terms of Turkey’s 

relations with the EU. The fact that not much has changed 

in the accession process is not a good sign, and has served 

as a substantive factor for the deterioration of the EU’s image 

in the eyes of the Turkish public. Public opinion demonstrates 

an unwillingness to accept the government’s 

rhetoric that it is working towards making Turkish accession 

to the EU a reality. The fact that there are occasional 

policy stand-offs between Turkey and the EU does not help 

the situation. This was the case in February 2011 when 

Turkish citizens were exempted from obtaining EU visas. 

Turkish officials continue to insist that the EU needs Turkey 

more than it needs the EU; most Turks share this view, 

although Europe’s political elite does not recognize it. 19 Eu- 

194

opean politicians only acknowledge this opinion when 

trying to attract votes in constituencies with a large Turkish 

population. 20 Egemen Bağış, the Turkish minister for 

EU affairs, has publicly stated that the patience of the Turkish 

government and people is dwindling, and that the EU 

must take decisive steps towards resolving what seems to 

be a political deadlock. 21 

The issue of Cyprus has been raised more frequently 

than ever before and has had the effect of galvanizing 

opposition to joining the EU. Opponents point to EU reforms 

as an attempt to use the accession process to infringe 

upon Turkish sovereignty. 22 Şahin Alpay, a wellknown 

columnist, has been one of the most active media 

personalities in following the unfolding of events between 

the EU and Turkey. In an op-ed written in June 2011, he 

stated that the EU had lost its power over the Turkish government 

and more recently, in December 2011, he questioned 

the significance of the accession process entirely. 23 

24 The EU remains hostile towards Turkey and often treats 

it like a second-class country. The Turkish people recognize 

this, which is reflected in the dwindling approval rate of 

Turkish EU membership. 25 

195

1 “EU-Turkey Relations.” European Commission. 07 January 2011. Date of 

access: 13/01/2012. 


access:13/01/2012. 


access:13/01/2012. 

4 “Haftalık Ortalama Gazete Satışları.” Netgazete. Date of access: 

13/01/2012. 

5 “Source Profile: Zaman.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

6 “Source Profile: Hürriyet.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

7 “Source Profile: Hürriyet.” Presseurop. Date of access: 01/04/2012. 

8 “Turkuvaz Media Group.” Global Media Market Intelligence. 2010. Date 






11 “Babacan AB ‘Hıristiyan Kulübü’ dedi, İsveç ‘ortak değer’ savunması 

yaptı.” Hürriyet. 30 January 2011. Date of access: 15/01/2012. 

12 Aköz, Emre. “Avrupa Birliği bizi ne Zaman alacak?” Sabah. 20 March 


13 “Bağış: Türkiye'de basın, tarihinin en özgür dönemini yaşıyor.” 

Hürriyet. 18 March 2011. 15/01/2012. 

14 “Ve Türk insanı sonunda AB'den vazgeçti.” Hürriyet. 15 March 2011. 


15 “Bağış: Kıbrıs, AB yolunda konulmuş muz kabuğudur.” Zaman. 21 July 


16 “Erzurum'da AB atışması.” Hürriyet. 07 January 2011. Date of access: 

15/01/2012. 

17 “Bağış: Avrupa'nın bittiğine inanmıyorum.” Zaman. 15 December 


18 “AB süreci AKP ile başlamış bir süreç değil.” Zaman. 13 December 


19 “Cumhurbaşkanı Gül'den Avusturya'da AB'ye mesaj.” Hürriyet. 02 May 


20 “Alman Politikacıdan Türkiye’nin AB üyeliğine destek.” Hürriyet. 30 






23 Alpay, Şahin. “AB Türkiye üzerindeki etkisini yitirdi.” Zaman. 21 June 


24 Alpay, Şahin. “Türkiye'nin AB'ye katılım süreci sona mı erdi?” Zaman. 


196

25 “Ve Türk insanı sonunda AB'den vazgeçti.” Hürriyet. 15 March 2011. 


197

UKRAINE 

By Tanya Branitska 

Ethnic make up: Ukrainian 77.8%, Russian 

17.3%, Belarusian 0.6%, Moldovan 

0.5%, Crimean Tatar 0.5%, Bulgarian 

0.4%, Hungarian 0.3%, Romanian 

0.3%, Polish 0.3%, Jewish 0.2%, other 

1.8% (2001 census) 



198

BACKGROUND: 

In 2008, the EU and Ukraine launched the Association 

Agreement negotiations. During the fifteenth EU- 

Ukraine Summit the European Council President Herman 

Van Rompuy stated that “the support of European public 

opinion to Ukraine's political association and economic integration 

to the EU is an important asset.” 1 However, recent 

political events in Ukraine resulted in the following 

statement: “The perceived deterioration of the quality of 

democracy and the rule of law in Ukraine has a direct impact 

in our Member-States, in our public at large, and in the 

European Parliament.” 2 


Ukraine’s news media field is dominated by television as 

the primary source of information for most of the population. 

Ukraine’s media watchdog Mediasapiens has published 

a report indicating the numbers of media standard 

violations and censored TV news reports. 1+1 scored as the 

second channel with the greatest number of instances of 

censorship. 3 In general, the current regime and its representatives 

have dominated TV news commentaries and 

very little time has been afforded to the opposition. 4 Moreover, 

in 2005 the current Head of the State Security Service 

of Ukraine bought 61% of the channel Inter. Concerns regarding 

the transparency of the transaction 5 and the new 

owner’s conduct 6 have been raised. 

Inter 

www.inter.ua 

Inter is Ukraine’s most popular TV channel 7. Its web page, 

Podrobnosti, gets over 13.4 million hits a month 8. The website 

also has an RSS feed running non-stop. 

199

1+1 

www.1plus1.ua 

1+1 is the country’s second most popular TV channel. 9 Its 

news program “ТСН” (TSN) has a monthly rate of over 19.7 

million hits 10. The website has a Ukrainian and Russian 

version. 

Korespondent 

www.ua.korrespondent.net 

Korespondent is Ukraine’s most popular online news 

source. The monthly hit rate of the website reaches the 

number of 42.2 million. 11 The website has a Ukrainian and 

Russian version. Apart from their own journalists’ reports, 

Korespondent also publishes news and expert reviews by 

the BBC Ukraine. 

FINDINGS: 

Between 1 January 2011 and 1 January 2012 the following 

EU-related events received the greatest coverage in the 

Ukrainian media: 

The Tymoshenko Case and the European Values and 

Identity 

The case of the ex-Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko was 

one of the most prevalent topics in the Ukrainian media. A 

lot of attention was paid to the European reaction to the 

development of the case and its influence on EU-Ukraine 

relations. 12 

Financial assistance and energy sector cooperation 

One of the most prominent themes in the media was that of 

the EU providing financial assistance to Ukraine. 13 

- Cooperation within the energy sector was also a prominent 

topic in the media. 14 15 Several dimensions of the 

energy sector were discussed in this respect. The most 

prominent aspect of this topic is Ukraine’s relation with 

200

Russia as the major provider of energy resources. The 

other topic of discussion on energy was focused on alternative 

ways in which the EU could deliver the necessary 

energy sources while avoiding Ukraine – the Nord Stream 

and the South Stream. 16 17 

Public opinion on the EU 

A number of media reports discussed how Ukrainians 

perceive the EU. 

- In the recent year, the publication of opinion polls that 

assess the Ukrainian attitude towards the EU and 

Ukraine’s “European choice” have become common in the 

Ukrainian media. The most notable of these reports evaluate 

the attitudes in eastern Ukraine and the Crimea, 

where a large Russian minority is present, toward 

Ukraine’s geopolitical alignment. 18 


The Ukrainian media presented the EU from two 

perspectives that were strongly linked to Ukraine’s foreign 

policy. In one of his interviews, the Minister of Foreign Affairs 

of Ukraine Kostiantyn Hryshchenko stated the following: 

“I am certain that there is no alternative course to the 

European integration. This is the only foreign policy strategy 

that unites all our society, all regions of our state, and all 

fractions of our political elite.” 19 

The first point of reference to the EU involved the 

topic of European values and identity – democracy, the rule 

of law, and the protection of human rights. These issues 

were discussed in the news reports on the EU reaction to 

the Arab Spring and the crackdowns on the protesters in 

Belarus. Therefore, the values of the EU represent a normative 

standard for Ukrainian society. The Ukrainian authorities 

may be using the positive associations of the EU to 

promote their own image. 

With regard to the human rights, one of the most 

notable news stories involved the EU member states’ reactions 

to the Tymoshenko case. The Tymoshenko case has 

201

ecome a notable point in the relations between the EU 

and Ukraine. The perspectives of both sides differ. The EU 

states that the violations of human rights and the questionable 

political practices of the ruling government represent 

an obstacle to the deepening of Europe's cooperation with 

Ukraine. In her interview with BBC Ukraine, Amanda Paul, 

an expert from the Centre of European Politics stated: 

“Brussels wants to see the improvement of the democratic 

standards in Ukraine before signing these documents … As 

it is widely known, many EU states tie this process to Tymoshenko’s 

release...” 20 

The Ukrainian authorities presented the case in a 

different light: “The President of Ukraine, Viktor Yanukovych, 

claims that none of the previous administrations in 

Ukraine have done more for European integration than the 

current one. And the only obstacle [author’s emphasis] to 

integration is the situation with the ex-prime minister of 

Ukraine Yulia Tymoshenko.” 21 Therefore, the opposition 

has blamed the government’s failure to fulfill its promises 

of European integration. 

It appears that the European idea was sold to the 

Ukrainian public through the media. The EU has become 

the major point of comparison in terms of political, economic, 

and social standards. Ever since Ukrainian independence, 

the most prominent discussion has concerned the 

question of Ukraine’s political orientation, “with the East or 

with the West?” The divergence in public opinion was perceived 

as the most prominent marker of national division. 

Today, the news report that the “Youth in Donetsk and 

Crimea claims its European choice.” 22 It is true that European 

integration is recognized by the youth as the preferred 

vector in foreign policy. However, the survey of an 

influential Kyiv-based think tank, Razumkov Centre, demonstrated 

that the support of different foreign policy vectors 

still varies from region to region. 23 

Notably, a fair amount of media attention was paid 

to the issue of the Eurozone crisis and economic developments 

in the EU itself. 24 The most critical news was that 

which involved the state of Euro and the possible dissolution 

of the Eurozone. 25 26 The news articles mostly focused 

202

on the developments in the Eurozone and the steps taken 

by its member states to overcome the crisis. Some of the 

expert opinions commented on the chance of the dissolution 

of the Eurozone. 27 

In conclusion, the prominent trends in the news reports 

concern the recognition of Ukraine’s European identity, 

European values, and the benefits of cooperation with 

the Western partners. The general tone of the messages is 

perhaps too optimistic when weighed against the political 

reality in the country. The media’s overabundant use of the 

word “success” is rather alarming. The much-discussed 

summit did not end with the signing of any milestone 

agreements. For instance, the negotiations of the visa regime 

are still on the table. While Van Rompuy, Barroso, 

Fule, and Texeira point to numerous inconsistencies that 

need to be settled, the representatives of the incumbent 

regime in Ukraine underline the new “successes”. 

203

1 Van Rompuy, Herman “Remarks of President of the European Council 

Herman Van Rompuy, following the 15th EU-Ukraine Summit.” 19 December 


2 ibid. 

3 “Про що мовчали новини у листопаді?” Телекритика. 27 January 


4 “Влада маніпулює українцями через телевізор?” Академія 

Української Преси. 07 November 2011. Date of access: 27/01/2012. 

5 “Експерти виявили підроблений підпис екс-власника "Інтера", за 

яким продали канал.” ТСН. 21 April 2009. Date of access: 

24/01/2012. 

6 Руденко, Євгенія. “Суд позбавив частот 5 канал і ТВі.” Українська 

служба БіБіСі. 08 June 2010. Date of access: 24/01/2012. 

7 Данькова, Наталія “Склалися на трьох.” Телекритика. 11 January 


8 “Media sources popularity ratings.” i.ua. Date of access: 03/02/2012. 

9 Данькова, Наталія. “Склалися на трьох.” Телекритика. 11 January 


10 “Media sources popularity ratings.” Bigmir. Date accessed: 

04/02/2012. 

11 “Media sources popularity ratings.” i.ua. Date accessed: 03/02/2012. 

12 “МЗС Франції: справа Тимошенко заважає асоціації між ЄС та 

Україною.” Кореспондент. 04 September 2011. Date of access: 

28/01/2012. 

13 “Украина получит от ЕС 17 миллионов евро для развития 

местных общин.” Подробности. 31 May 2011. Date of access: 

27/01/2012. 

14 “Модернизация украинских трубопроводов остается 

приоритетом для ЕС.” Подробности. 31 May 2011. Date of access: 

30/01/2012. 

15 “ЕС: Модернизировать украинскую ГТС выгоднее, чем строить 

новую.” Подробности. 01 June 2011. Date of access: 30/01/2012. 

16“Європа почала закачувати газ в обхід України.” ТСН. 21 October 


17 “Грищенко: 'Южный поток' - это политический 

проект.”Подробности. 29 December 2011. Date accessed: 

30/01/2012. 

18 “51% молоді Донбасу та Криму підтримують вступ України в ЄС.” 

Кореспондент. 15 December 2011. Date of access: 29/01/2012. 

19 “Константин Грищенко: Модель взаимодействия Украины с 

Таможенным союзом должна базироваться на основе принципов 

прагматизма и взаимовыгодного соТрудничества.” Подробности. 


20 “Експерт: до виборів в Україні угоду з ЄС не підпишуть”. 

Кореспондент. 07 January 2012. Date of access: 30/01/2012. 

204

21 “Янукович назвав єдину перешкоду на шляху євроінтеграції 

України.” Кореспондент. 03 February 2012. Date of access: 

03/02/2012. 

22 “51% молоді Донбасу та Криму підтримують вступ України в ЄС.” 


23 “Яким інтеграційним напрямом має йти Україна?” Центр 

Разумкова. 2011. Date of access: 01/02/2012. 

24 “Саркозі вважає, що Європі залишився крок до розвалу.” 


25 “Європа готується до відмови від євро.” ТСН. 08 December 2011. 


26 Рудь, Борис “Союз ради евро.” Подробности. 13 December 2011. 


27 “Єврозона не зникне, бо занадто вагома у світі.” ТСН. 02 December 


205

THE UNITED KINGDOM 

By Debbie Butts 

Ethnic Groups: white (of which English 

83.6%, Scottish 8.6%, Welsh 4.9%, 

Northern Irish 2.9%) 92.1%, black 

2%, Indian 1.8%, Pakistani 1.3%, 

mixed 1.2%, other 1.6% (2001 census) 




EU funding in 2010: net contributor 

206

BACKGROUND: 

While the UK initially rejected membership of the 

ECSC it joined the EEC in 1973, which would later become 

the EU. Dubbed Europe’s “awkward partner,” 1 they opted 

out of the EMU in 1991. 2 Despite this, the UK still plays a 

leading role in the day-to-day workings of the EU, and EU 

law supersedes its national law. 3 Today the UK is one of the 

largest economies in the EU. 4 


BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) 

www.bbc.com 

BBC News is the largest public service broadcaster in the 

UK, 5 providing ongoing radio, television and online news 

coverage. BBC News online is the most popular news website 

in the UK. 6 Although there have been allegations made 

of a political bias from all parties, the BBC claims to be neutral: 

“we are independent, impartial and honest.” 7 

The Guardian 

www.guardian.co.uk 

The Guardian is a left of center British national newspaper 

published daily, claiming to be “without party affiliation, 

and faithful to its liberal tradition.” 8 The Guardian Online is 

one of the most popular British newspaper websites behind 

the Daily Mail’s Mail Online. 9 

Daily Mail 

www.dailymail.co.uk 

The Daily Mail is a British conservative middle-market tabloid 

owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust. It is one of 

the most popular newspapers in the UK, and has the most 

popular online offering. 10 

207

FINDINGS: 

In January, there were suggestions of refashioning the EU- 

UK relationship. 11 A EU Bill was proposed to prevent the 

handover of further powers to Brussels without a public 

vote. 12 Tory Eurosceptics expressed dissatisfaction with UK 

Prime Minister David Cameron and concerns over UK sovereignty 

as the transfer of powers to the EU continues. 13 The 

government initially rejected calls for a UK referendum on 

EU membership, but Conservative pressure for one returned 

in September. 14 In October, Cameron refused the 

call for a referendum despite a 100,000 strong petition in 

September. 15 16 The result was the resignation of several 

Tories and rebellion against Cameron. 17 18 Statistics 

showed that 70% of voters want a referendum on the UK’s 

EU membership. 19 In October and November the majority 

of the new intake in government also desired a different 

relationship. 20 The issue of regaining UK power was ongoing 

throughout the year, and there was a general increase 

in Euroscepticism. 21 22 

UK influence in EU affairs 

- In February and March, the UK exercised its influence 

over the EU, encouraging them to take action over the 

situation in Libya 23 and was perceived to be taking control 

of EU action in the matter, along with France. Cameron’s 

approach reveals a conflicting EU stance; he was 

pro-EU in March 24 and a “practical Eurosceptic” by September. 

25 In October, Cameron said that any change to a 

EU treaty would not be against UK interests, 26 27 yet in 

December he refused to cooperate. 28 During the Eurozone 

crisis his focus was on protecting British interests, 29 and 

reports emerged of arguments between Member States 

and the UK, with no movement from either side. 30 

The Eurozone crisis 

- In December the Eurozone crisis put treaty changes back 

on the EU's agenda. 31 32 David Cameron reiterated that 

208

none of the proposed changes about the future shape of 

the EU would trigger a referendum in the UK. 33 David 

Cameron blocked a EU-wide deal to tackle the euro crisis, 

34 35 leading to suggestions that the UK will be isolated 

from the EU. 36 37 Reports revealed a divide in opinions 

within government. 38 39 40 Concern was expressed from 

business and industry sectors over the economic implications 

for the UK. 41 42 The reaction from member states 

suggested a loyalty to the UK, as France and Germany 

both reiterated their support. 43 

The Environment, Immigration and Financial Aid to the 

EU 

- Other issues regarding the environment, 44 45 46 immigration, 

47 48 49 and, in particular, financial matters recurred 

throughout the year and revealed ongoing tensions between 

the UK and the EU. The UK has shown reluctance to 

give financial aid to the EU, yet wishes to remain influential 

and included in EU decision-making processes (Portuguese 

and Greek bailouts in March and June; IMF package 

targeted at the Eurozone towards the end of 2011). 50 

51 The UK’s 2012 2% increase in its EU budget contribution 

was labelled a “victory” over the EU. 52 


The UK’s relationship with the EU has clearly deteriorated, 

and over the course of 2011, tensions between 

the EU and the UK have increased, resulting in their relationship 

being arguably more fragile than ever. The most 

frequent debate in the media has centered on the issue of a 

UK referendum on EU membership. At the beginning of the 

year, Tory Eurosceptics voiced their concern over the issue, 

although MPs rejected a Tory MP’s call for a referendum. 53 

However, pressure on the UK government to hold a referendum 

returned in September, with MPs from across all 

parties calling for a “EU overhaul.” 54 55 Over the year, as 

events unfolded, Euroscepticism gathered considerable 

support and momentum within the government, spreading 

209

into the public arena and being granted much media coverage. 

56 

Throughout the year, Conservative MPs have called 

for Cameron to take a tougher line on issues such as Europe, 

immigration and social policy. 57 58 There appears to 

be the need to reassure the general public that the UK government 

is taking a firm stance in its approach to relations 

with the EU. There is a lack of reports promoting or even 

acknowledging the benefits of EU membership. Repeatedly 

there are discussions of “safeguarding” the UK from closer 

integration, 59 60 and the need to regain lost power and resist 

any further loss of powers to the EU. The EU is often 

portrayed as a negative force infringing on UK sovereignty 

and meddling in UK law; 61 both by the media and by MPs. 

Reports reveal unwillingness from the UK to fall in line 

with the EU ideals of unity and cooperation. Instead, the 

relationship is presented as a competition between the 

two, 62 with a substantial amount of negative coverage and 

bitter negotiations regarding issues such as budget, immigration 

and environmental issues. 63 64 65 66 The UK clearly 

wishes to remain an important player in the decision making 

process of the EU, despite their reluctance to accept 

responsibility or give financial aid. 67 

Throughout the year, Cameron has supported EU 

rhetorically, for the benefit of relations with the EU. In 

March he stated that he wanted Britain to stay within the 

EU and influence its future. The UK’s influence within the 

EU was apparent in February and March, when the UK and 

France cooperated over the Libyan civil war and Libyan nofly 

zone. The UK was seen as an instrumental part of the 

proceedings, leading meetings and working closely with 

other EU member states. 

The Eurozone crisis brought tensions to a head towards 

the end of the year, both with the EU and between 

political parties within the UK government. David Cameron 

reiterated that no reworked EU treaty designed to solve the 

Eurozone crisis would be signed unless it contained safeguards 

to protect British interests. 68 But while some 

wanted to use Eurozone negotiations to help return more 

powers to the UK, 69 the Liberal Democrats believed efforts 

210

to regain UK powers were deeply damaging. 70 Within the 

UK government, the divide in opinions over the UK’s membership 

in the EU has led to David Cameron attempting to 

appease all parties. The PM’s inconsistent stance on the EU 

over the year does not present a stable picture of the EU to 

the UK public. 

In December, Cameron’s veto over the Eurozone 

crisis would dramatically alter the UK’s position within the 

EU and separate it from other EU Member States. His move 

threatened the stability of the EU in order to prioritize the 

UK’s agenda. There are reports that the majority of the UK 

public supported his decision, falling in line with the Eurosceptic 

trend. 71 Internally, the coalition government has 

remained divided throughout the year. Deputy PM Nick 

Clegg has warned of the dangers of "fragmentation" 72 and 

other senior government officials have also expressed disdain 

over the outcome. 73 France and Germany have shown 

a loyalty towards the UK, despite Cameron supposedly agitating 

relations. 74 It remains to be seen what the consequences 

are, but initial responses suggest the UK could easily 

become isolated from EU affairs. 75 

211

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